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Editor’s Note: Alison M. Heru, MD, the Families in Psychiatry columnist, invited Dr. Reinstein to address this topic.
Growing up, I was always intrigued by the strong emotions that even the mildest separation evoked within me. As a psychiatrist, I now believe that these emotions were related to my family’s difficulty with separation, a concept likely transmitted from my grandmother’s sudden separation as a child.
The political circumstances of the “Kindertransport” and the recent family separation at the southern U.S. border differ, but the Kindertransport is a model for studying the effects of forced parent-child separation and its intergenerational transmission. As a rescue operation that took place immediately before World War II, the Kindertransport was the emigration of approximately 10,000 German Jewish children from Germany and Nazi-occupied countries to England. Even though they were not literally forced, the parents involved were compelled to separate from their children to give their children a chance to survive.
In a recent letter1 published in The New York Times, Eva Yachnes, herself a Kindertransport participant, reflected on the current situation at the southern U.S. border. She alluded to the lifelong effects of her own separation at the age of 6 when emigrating from Vienna to Germany. Personally, as a granddaughter of a Kindertransport participant, I am particularly concerned about the intergenerational transmission of the trauma of family separation.
Since early May 2018, more than 2,000 children have been forcibly separated from their parents after illegally crossing the border. As part of a “zero tolerance policy,” the separation was characterized by the Trump administration as a deterrent to illegal border crossings. Although many Americans are horrified by the news reports about family separation, psychiatrists in particular have expressed concern about this trauma. The American Psychiatric Association issued a statement2 warning that “any forced separation is highly stressful for children and can cause lifelong trauma.” Several weeks later, the APA joined several other mental health organizations in a letter3 calling for the immediate end of enforcement of those policies. In that letter, the organizations said forced separations can cause “an increased risk of ... mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder.”
What must psychiatrists understand about the impact of childhood trauma? How can psychiatrists approach treatment of children separated from their parents? Are there ways to minimize the risk for intergenerational impact of this trauma?
What do we know?
Childhood trauma is influenced by multiple factors and can be expressed in several ways. According to research,4 the age of the child at the time of traumatic event, the frequency of traumatic experiences, and the degree to which the child’s caretakers were involved in the trauma are factors that influence the extent of psychological damage. This research also suggests that childhood trauma is associated with emotional dysregulation, aggression against self and others, difficulties in attention and dissociation, medical problems, and difficulty with navigating adult interpersonal relationships.
When viewed through the lens of attachment theory, the forced separation of a child from its caretakers is a potent form of childhood trauma. Joanna E. Chambers, MD, summarizes and explains John Bowlby’s attachment theory as a neurobiological system originating from an infant’s connection to the primary caretaker. This connection becomes a lifelong model for all subsequent relationships.
Any traumatic disruptions in the development of this system puts the child at risk of developing “insecure attachment.” This insecure attachment can lead to lifelong emotional problems for the child, affecting the quality of subsequent marital relationships, relationships to children, and the development of personality disorders.
In addition, it correlates to the development of psychiatric illnesses, specifically depression and anxiety. There is also a plausible biological basis for attachment theory. Both oxytocin, a hormone released in human bonding, and social interaction itself have been shown to decrease cortisol levels. Elevated cortisol has been found to negatively affect infant brain development, Dr. Chambers argued.5
Given those significant effects of childhood trauma, it is understandable that there exists a concept of “intergenerational transmission of trauma.” Originating from studies of Holocaust survivors and their descendants, researchers Amy Lehrner, PhD, and Rachel Yehuda, PhD, conceptualize intergenerational transmission of trauma as the intergenerational impact of prenatal PTSD.6 This impact is expressed as a predisposition in the offspring of Holocaust survivors to developing PTSD, difficulties in individuation and separation, higher rates of mood and anxiety disorders, and higher rates of physical health issues.
Although they are complex and clearly multidetermined, Dr. Yehuda and Dr. Lehrner also summarize plausible biological theories for the intergenerational transmission of trauma. Epigenetic differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, circadian rhythm, urinary and plasma cortisol levels, glucocorticoid sensitivity, and regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene all have been found in Holocaust offspring with parental PTSD, in contrast to offspring without parental PTSD.6
What can we as psychiatrists do?
We are uniquely equipped to take several concrete steps to help mitigate the effects of these traumatic events. Among them, we can:
- Provide opportunities for the child and the family to process their experience. This can be profoundly healing and can help minimize the devastating psychological effects of this separation.
- Become acquainted with the concept of intergenerational transmission of resilience.
- Work with trauma survivors to develop their own personal narratives and cultural rituals surrounding the trauma.6
- Encourage second- and third-generation descendants to engage in artistic expression of the trauma, visit places of importance to their parents, and engage in social and political activism. These are all expressions of resilience in the offspring of trauma victims.6
In summary, recent U.S. political events have caused thousands of children to be forcibly separated from their parents. Those separations are traumatic and can have lifelong psychological implications for the children and their offspring. It is important to provide quality mental health treatment to these children with a specific focus on treating PTSD and processing the traumatic experience. Psychological treatment can help mitigate the effects of the traumatic separation and create a sense of resiliency.
References
1. New York Times. June 20, 2018. “My separation trauma.”
2. American Psychiatric Association statement, May 30, 2018.
3. Letter to the departments of Justice, Health & Human Services, and Homeland Security, June 20, 2018.
4. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am. 2003;(12.2):293-318.
5. Psychodynamic Psychiatry. 2017 Dec;45(4):542-63.
6. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2018 Jan;10(1):22-9.
Dr. Reinstein is a psychiatry attending at Zucker Hillside Hospital of the Northwell Health System, Glen Oaks, New York. Her clinical interests include reproductive psychiatry and family therapy, with a specific focus on maternal mental health. Dr. Reinstein completed her adult psychiatry residency training at Montefiore Hospital/Albert Einstein College of Medicine after graduating from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Yeshiva University with a B.A. in biology. She is one of the recipients of the 4th Annual Resident Recognition Award for Excellence in Family Oriented Care.
Editor’s Note: Alison M. Heru, MD, the Families in Psychiatry columnist, invited Dr. Reinstein to address this topic.
Growing up, I was always intrigued by the strong emotions that even the mildest separation evoked within me. As a psychiatrist, I now believe that these emotions were related to my family’s difficulty with separation, a concept likely transmitted from my grandmother’s sudden separation as a child.
The political circumstances of the “Kindertransport” and the recent family separation at the southern U.S. border differ, but the Kindertransport is a model for studying the effects of forced parent-child separation and its intergenerational transmission. As a rescue operation that took place immediately before World War II, the Kindertransport was the emigration of approximately 10,000 German Jewish children from Germany and Nazi-occupied countries to England. Even though they were not literally forced, the parents involved were compelled to separate from their children to give their children a chance to survive.
In a recent letter1 published in The New York Times, Eva Yachnes, herself a Kindertransport participant, reflected on the current situation at the southern U.S. border. She alluded to the lifelong effects of her own separation at the age of 6 when emigrating from Vienna to Germany. Personally, as a granddaughter of a Kindertransport participant, I am particularly concerned about the intergenerational transmission of the trauma of family separation.
Since early May 2018, more than 2,000 children have been forcibly separated from their parents after illegally crossing the border. As part of a “zero tolerance policy,” the separation was characterized by the Trump administration as a deterrent to illegal border crossings. Although many Americans are horrified by the news reports about family separation, psychiatrists in particular have expressed concern about this trauma. The American Psychiatric Association issued a statement2 warning that “any forced separation is highly stressful for children and can cause lifelong trauma.” Several weeks later, the APA joined several other mental health organizations in a letter3 calling for the immediate end of enforcement of those policies. In that letter, the organizations said forced separations can cause “an increased risk of ... mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder.”
What must psychiatrists understand about the impact of childhood trauma? How can psychiatrists approach treatment of children separated from their parents? Are there ways to minimize the risk for intergenerational impact of this trauma?
What do we know?
Childhood trauma is influenced by multiple factors and can be expressed in several ways. According to research,4 the age of the child at the time of traumatic event, the frequency of traumatic experiences, and the degree to which the child’s caretakers were involved in the trauma are factors that influence the extent of psychological damage. This research also suggests that childhood trauma is associated with emotional dysregulation, aggression against self and others, difficulties in attention and dissociation, medical problems, and difficulty with navigating adult interpersonal relationships.
When viewed through the lens of attachment theory, the forced separation of a child from its caretakers is a potent form of childhood trauma. Joanna E. Chambers, MD, summarizes and explains John Bowlby’s attachment theory as a neurobiological system originating from an infant’s connection to the primary caretaker. This connection becomes a lifelong model for all subsequent relationships.
Any traumatic disruptions in the development of this system puts the child at risk of developing “insecure attachment.” This insecure attachment can lead to lifelong emotional problems for the child, affecting the quality of subsequent marital relationships, relationships to children, and the development of personality disorders.
In addition, it correlates to the development of psychiatric illnesses, specifically depression and anxiety. There is also a plausible biological basis for attachment theory. Both oxytocin, a hormone released in human bonding, and social interaction itself have been shown to decrease cortisol levels. Elevated cortisol has been found to negatively affect infant brain development, Dr. Chambers argued.5
Given those significant effects of childhood trauma, it is understandable that there exists a concept of “intergenerational transmission of trauma.” Originating from studies of Holocaust survivors and their descendants, researchers Amy Lehrner, PhD, and Rachel Yehuda, PhD, conceptualize intergenerational transmission of trauma as the intergenerational impact of prenatal PTSD.6 This impact is expressed as a predisposition in the offspring of Holocaust survivors to developing PTSD, difficulties in individuation and separation, higher rates of mood and anxiety disorders, and higher rates of physical health issues.
Although they are complex and clearly multidetermined, Dr. Yehuda and Dr. Lehrner also summarize plausible biological theories for the intergenerational transmission of trauma. Epigenetic differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, circadian rhythm, urinary and plasma cortisol levels, glucocorticoid sensitivity, and regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene all have been found in Holocaust offspring with parental PTSD, in contrast to offspring without parental PTSD.6
What can we as psychiatrists do?
We are uniquely equipped to take several concrete steps to help mitigate the effects of these traumatic events. Among them, we can:
- Provide opportunities for the child and the family to process their experience. This can be profoundly healing and can help minimize the devastating psychological effects of this separation.
- Become acquainted with the concept of intergenerational transmission of resilience.
- Work with trauma survivors to develop their own personal narratives and cultural rituals surrounding the trauma.6
- Encourage second- and third-generation descendants to engage in artistic expression of the trauma, visit places of importance to their parents, and engage in social and political activism. These are all expressions of resilience in the offspring of trauma victims.6
In summary, recent U.S. political events have caused thousands of children to be forcibly separated from their parents. Those separations are traumatic and can have lifelong psychological implications for the children and their offspring. It is important to provide quality mental health treatment to these children with a specific focus on treating PTSD and processing the traumatic experience. Psychological treatment can help mitigate the effects of the traumatic separation and create a sense of resiliency.
References
1. New York Times. June 20, 2018. “My separation trauma.”
2. American Psychiatric Association statement, May 30, 2018.
3. Letter to the departments of Justice, Health & Human Services, and Homeland Security, June 20, 2018.
4. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am. 2003;(12.2):293-318.
5. Psychodynamic Psychiatry. 2017 Dec;45(4):542-63.
6. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2018 Jan;10(1):22-9.
Dr. Reinstein is a psychiatry attending at Zucker Hillside Hospital of the Northwell Health System, Glen Oaks, New York. Her clinical interests include reproductive psychiatry and family therapy, with a specific focus on maternal mental health. Dr. Reinstein completed her adult psychiatry residency training at Montefiore Hospital/Albert Einstein College of Medicine after graduating from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Yeshiva University with a B.A. in biology. She is one of the recipients of the 4th Annual Resident Recognition Award for Excellence in Family Oriented Care.
Editor’s Note: Alison M. Heru, MD, the Families in Psychiatry columnist, invited Dr. Reinstein to address this topic.
Growing up, I was always intrigued by the strong emotions that even the mildest separation evoked within me. As a psychiatrist, I now believe that these emotions were related to my family’s difficulty with separation, a concept likely transmitted from my grandmother’s sudden separation as a child.
The political circumstances of the “Kindertransport” and the recent family separation at the southern U.S. border differ, but the Kindertransport is a model for studying the effects of forced parent-child separation and its intergenerational transmission. As a rescue operation that took place immediately before World War II, the Kindertransport was the emigration of approximately 10,000 German Jewish children from Germany and Nazi-occupied countries to England. Even though they were not literally forced, the parents involved were compelled to separate from their children to give their children a chance to survive.
In a recent letter1 published in The New York Times, Eva Yachnes, herself a Kindertransport participant, reflected on the current situation at the southern U.S. border. She alluded to the lifelong effects of her own separation at the age of 6 when emigrating from Vienna to Germany. Personally, as a granddaughter of a Kindertransport participant, I am particularly concerned about the intergenerational transmission of the trauma of family separation.
Since early May 2018, more than 2,000 children have been forcibly separated from their parents after illegally crossing the border. As part of a “zero tolerance policy,” the separation was characterized by the Trump administration as a deterrent to illegal border crossings. Although many Americans are horrified by the news reports about family separation, psychiatrists in particular have expressed concern about this trauma. The American Psychiatric Association issued a statement2 warning that “any forced separation is highly stressful for children and can cause lifelong trauma.” Several weeks later, the APA joined several other mental health organizations in a letter3 calling for the immediate end of enforcement of those policies. In that letter, the organizations said forced separations can cause “an increased risk of ... mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder.”
What must psychiatrists understand about the impact of childhood trauma? How can psychiatrists approach treatment of children separated from their parents? Are there ways to minimize the risk for intergenerational impact of this trauma?
What do we know?
Childhood trauma is influenced by multiple factors and can be expressed in several ways. According to research,4 the age of the child at the time of traumatic event, the frequency of traumatic experiences, and the degree to which the child’s caretakers were involved in the trauma are factors that influence the extent of psychological damage. This research also suggests that childhood trauma is associated with emotional dysregulation, aggression against self and others, difficulties in attention and dissociation, medical problems, and difficulty with navigating adult interpersonal relationships.
When viewed through the lens of attachment theory, the forced separation of a child from its caretakers is a potent form of childhood trauma. Joanna E. Chambers, MD, summarizes and explains John Bowlby’s attachment theory as a neurobiological system originating from an infant’s connection to the primary caretaker. This connection becomes a lifelong model for all subsequent relationships.
Any traumatic disruptions in the development of this system puts the child at risk of developing “insecure attachment.” This insecure attachment can lead to lifelong emotional problems for the child, affecting the quality of subsequent marital relationships, relationships to children, and the development of personality disorders.
In addition, it correlates to the development of psychiatric illnesses, specifically depression and anxiety. There is also a plausible biological basis for attachment theory. Both oxytocin, a hormone released in human bonding, and social interaction itself have been shown to decrease cortisol levels. Elevated cortisol has been found to negatively affect infant brain development, Dr. Chambers argued.5
Given those significant effects of childhood trauma, it is understandable that there exists a concept of “intergenerational transmission of trauma.” Originating from studies of Holocaust survivors and their descendants, researchers Amy Lehrner, PhD, and Rachel Yehuda, PhD, conceptualize intergenerational transmission of trauma as the intergenerational impact of prenatal PTSD.6 This impact is expressed as a predisposition in the offspring of Holocaust survivors to developing PTSD, difficulties in individuation and separation, higher rates of mood and anxiety disorders, and higher rates of physical health issues.
Although they are complex and clearly multidetermined, Dr. Yehuda and Dr. Lehrner also summarize plausible biological theories for the intergenerational transmission of trauma. Epigenetic differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, circadian rhythm, urinary and plasma cortisol levels, glucocorticoid sensitivity, and regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor gene all have been found in Holocaust offspring with parental PTSD, in contrast to offspring without parental PTSD.6
What can we as psychiatrists do?
We are uniquely equipped to take several concrete steps to help mitigate the effects of these traumatic events. Among them, we can:
- Provide opportunities for the child and the family to process their experience. This can be profoundly healing and can help minimize the devastating psychological effects of this separation.
- Become acquainted with the concept of intergenerational transmission of resilience.
- Work with trauma survivors to develop their own personal narratives and cultural rituals surrounding the trauma.6
- Encourage second- and third-generation descendants to engage in artistic expression of the trauma, visit places of importance to their parents, and engage in social and political activism. These are all expressions of resilience in the offspring of trauma victims.6
In summary, recent U.S. political events have caused thousands of children to be forcibly separated from their parents. Those separations are traumatic and can have lifelong psychological implications for the children and their offspring. It is important to provide quality mental health treatment to these children with a specific focus on treating PTSD and processing the traumatic experience. Psychological treatment can help mitigate the effects of the traumatic separation and create a sense of resiliency.
References
1. New York Times. June 20, 2018. “My separation trauma.”
2. American Psychiatric Association statement, May 30, 2018.
3. Letter to the departments of Justice, Health & Human Services, and Homeland Security, June 20, 2018.
4. Child Adolesc Psychiatric Clin N Am. 2003;(12.2):293-318.
5. Psychodynamic Psychiatry. 2017 Dec;45(4):542-63.
6. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2018 Jan;10(1):22-9.
Dr. Reinstein is a psychiatry attending at Zucker Hillside Hospital of the Northwell Health System, Glen Oaks, New York. Her clinical interests include reproductive psychiatry and family therapy, with a specific focus on maternal mental health. Dr. Reinstein completed her adult psychiatry residency training at Montefiore Hospital/Albert Einstein College of Medicine after graduating from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Yeshiva University with a B.A. in biology. She is one of the recipients of the 4th Annual Resident Recognition Award for Excellence in Family Oriented Care.