Sepsis Outcomes Across Settings

Sepsis is a major cause of death in hospitalized patients.13 It is recommended that patients with sepsis be treated with early appropriate antibiotics, as well as early goal‐directed therapy including fluid and vasopressor support according to evidence‐based guidelines.46 Following such evidence‐based protocols and process‐of‐care interventions has been shown to be associated with better patient outcomes, including decreased mortality.7, 8

Most patients with severe sepsis are cared for in intensive care units (ICUs). At times, there are no beds available in the primary ICU and patients presenting to the hospital with sepsis are cared for in other units. Patients admitted to a non‐preferred clinical inpatient setting are sometimes referred to as overflow.9 ICUs can differ significantly in staffing patterns, equipment, and training.10 It is not known if overflow sepsis patients receive similar care when admitted to non‐primary ICUs.

At our hospital, we have an active bed management system led by the hospitalist division.11 This system includes protocols to place sepsis patients in the overflow ICU if the primary ICU is full. We hypothesized that process‐of‐care interventions would be more strictly adhered to when sepsis patients were in the primary ICU rather than in the overflow unit at our institution.

METHODS

RESULTS

There were 100 patients admitted to the MICU and 41 patients admitted to the CICU during the study period (Table 1). The majority of the patients were admitted to the ICUs directly from the emergency department (ED) (n = 129), with a small number of patients who were transferred from the Medicine floors (n = 12).

There were no significant differences between the 2 study groups in terms of age, sex, primary site of infection, mean APACHE II score, SOFA scores on day 1, chronic organ insufficiency, immune suppression, or need for mechanical ventilation (Table 1). The most common site of infection was lung. There were significantly more patients with severe sepsis in the MICU (88% vs 51%, P <0.001).

DISCUSSION

Since sepsis is more commonly treated in the medical ICU and some data suggests that specialty ICUs may be better at providing desired care,18, 19 we believed that patients treated in the MICU would be more likely to receive guideline‐concordant care. The study refutes our a priori hypothesis and reveals that evidence‐based processes‐of‐care associated with improved outcomes for sepsis are similarly implemented at our institution in the primary and overflow ICU. These findings are important, as ICU bed availability is a frequent problem and many hospitals overflow patients to non‐primary ICUs.9, 20

The observed equivalence in the care delivered may be a function of the relatively high number of patients with sepsis treated in the overflow unit, thereby giving the delivery teams enough experience to provide the desired care. An alternative explanation could be that the residents in CICU brought with them the experience from having previously trained in the MICU. Although, some of the care processes for sepsis patients are influenced by the CPOE (with embedded order sets and protocols), it is unlikely that CPOE can fully account for similarity in care because many processes and therapies (like use of steroids, amount of fluid delivered in first 24 hours, packed red blood cells [PRBC] transfusion, and spontaneous breathing trials) are not embedded within order sets.

The significant difference noted in the areas of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and gastrointestinal (GI) prophylaxis within 24 hours of ICU admission was unexpected. These preventive therapies are included in initial order sets in the CPOE, which prompt physicians to order them as standard‐of‐care. With respect to DVT prophylaxis, we suspect that some of the difference might be attributable to specific contraindications to its use, which could have been more common in one of the units. There were more patients in MICU on mechanical ventilation (although not statistically significant) and with severe sepsis (statistically significant) at time of admission, which might have contributed to the difference noted in use of GI prophylaxis. It is also plausible that these differences might have disappeared if they were reassessed beyond 24 hours into the ICU admission. We cannot rule out the presence of unit‐ and physician‐level differences that contributed to this. Likewise, there was an unexpected trend towards significance, wherein more patients in CICU had spontaneous breathing trials within 24 hours of admission. This might also be explained by the higher number of patients with severe sepsis in the MICU (preempting any weaning attempts). These caveats aside, it is reassuring that, at our institution, admitting septic patients to the first available ICU bed does not adversely affect important processes‐of‐care.

One might ask whether this study's data should reassure other sites who are boarding septic patients in non‐primary ICUs. Irrespective of the number of patients studied or the degree of statistical significance of the associations, an observational study design cannot prove that boarding septic patients in non‐primary ICUs is either safe or unsafe. However, we hope that readers reflect on, and take inventory of, systems issues that may be different between unitswith an eye towards eliminating variation such that all units managing septic patients are primed to deliver guideline‐concordant care. Other hospitals that use CPOE with sepsis order sets, have protocols for sepsis care, and who train nursing and respiratory therapists to meet high standards might be pleased to see that the patients in our study received comparable, high‐quality care across the 2 units. While our data suggests that boarding patients in overflow units may be safe, these findings would need to be replicated at other sites using prospective designs to prove safety.

Length of emergency room stay prior to admission is associated with higher mortality rates.2123 At many hospitals, critical care beds are a scarce resource such that most hospitals have a policy for the triage of patients to critical care beds.24, 25 Lundberg and colleagues' study demonstrated that patients who developed septic shock on the medical wards experienced delays in receipt of intravenous fluids, inotropic agents and transfer to a critical care setting.26 Thus, rather than waiting in the ED or on the medical service for an MICU bed to become available, it may be most wise to admit a critically sick septic patient to the first available ICU bed, even to an overflow ICU. In a recent study by Sidlow and Aggarwal, 1104 patients discharged from the coronary care unit (CCU) with a non‐cardiac primary diagnosis were compared to patients admitted to the MICU in the same hospital.27 The study found no differences in patient mortality, 30‐day readmission rate, hospital LOS, ICU LOS, and safety outcomes of ventilator‐associated pneumonia and catheter‐associated bloodstream infections between ICUs. However, their study did not examine processes‐of‐care delivered between the primary ICU and the overflow unit, and did not validate the primary diagnoses of patients admitted to the ICU.

Several limitations of this study should be considered. First, this study was conducted at a single center. Second, we used a retrospective study design; however, a prospective study randomizing patients to 1 of the 2 units would likely never be possible. Third, the relatively small number of patients limited the power of the study to detect mortality differences between the units. However, this was a pilot study focused on processes of care as opposed to clinical outcomes. Fourth, it is possible that we did not capture every single patient with sepsis with our keyword search. Our use of a previously validated screening process should have limited the number of missed cases.15, 16 Fifth, although the 2 ICUs have exclusive nursing staff and attending physicians, the housestaff and respiratory therapists do rotate between the 2 ICUs and place orders in the common CPOE. The rotating housestaff may certainly represent a source for confounding, but the large numbers (>30) of evenly spread housestaff over the study period minimizes the potential for any trainee to be responsible for a large proportion of observed practice. Sixth, ICU attendings are the physicians of record and could influence the results. Because no attending physician was on service for more than 4 weeks during the study period, and patients were equally spread over this same time, concerns about clustering and biases this may have created should be minimal but cannot be ruled out. Seventh, some interventions and processes, such as antibiotic administration and measurement of lactate, may have been initiated in the ED, thereby decreasing the potential for differences between the groups. Additionally, we cannot rule out the possibility that factors other than bed availability drove the admission process (we found that the relative proportion of patients admitted to overflow ICU during hours of ambulance diversion was similar to the overflow ICU admissions during non‐ambulance diversion hours). It is possible that some selection bias by the hospitalist assigning patients to specific ICUs influenced their triage decisionsalthough all triaging doctors go through the same process of training in active bed management.11 While more patients admitted to the MICU had severe sepsis, there were no differences between groups in APACHE II or SOFA scores. However, we cannot rule out that there were other residual confounders. Finally, in a small number of cases (4/41, 10%), the CICU team consulted the MICU attending for assistance. This input had the potential to reduce disparities in care between the units.

Overflowing patients to non‐primary ICUs occurs in many hospitals. Our study demonstrates that sepsis treatment for overflow patients may be similar to that received in the primary ICU. While a large multicentered and randomized trial could determine whether significant management and outcome differences exist between primary and overflow ICUs, feasibility concerns make it unlikely that such a study will ever be conducted.

Sepsis is a major cause of death in hospitalized patients.13 It is recommended that patients with sepsis be treated with early appropriate antibiotics, as well as early goal‐directed therapy including fluid and vasopressor support according to evidence‐based guidelines.46 Following such evidence‐based protocols and process‐of‐care interventions has been shown to be associated with better patient outcomes, including decreased mortality.7, 8

Most patients with severe sepsis are cared for in intensive care units (ICUs). At times, there are no beds available in the primary ICU and patients presenting to the hospital with sepsis are cared for in other units. Patients admitted to a non‐preferred clinical inpatient setting are sometimes referred to as overflow.9 ICUs can differ significantly in staffing patterns, equipment, and training.10 It is not known if overflow sepsis patients receive similar care when admitted to non‐primary ICUs.

At our hospital, we have an active bed management system led by the hospitalist division.11 This system includes protocols to place sepsis patients in the overflow ICU if the primary ICU is full. We hypothesized that process‐of‐care interventions would be more strictly adhered to when sepsis patients were in the primary ICU rather than in the overflow unit at our institution.

METHODS

RESULTS

There were 100 patients admitted to the MICU and 41 patients admitted to the CICU during the study period (Table 1). The majority of the patients were admitted to the ICUs directly from the emergency department (ED) (n = 129), with a small number of patients who were transferred from the Medicine floors (n = 12).

There were no significant differences between the 2 study groups in terms of age, sex, primary site of infection, mean APACHE II score, SOFA scores on day 1, chronic organ insufficiency, immune suppression, or need for mechanical ventilation (Table 1). The most common site of infection was lung. There were significantly more patients with severe sepsis in the MICU (88% vs 51%, P <0.001).

DISCUSSION

Since sepsis is more commonly treated in the medical ICU and some data suggests that specialty ICUs may be better at providing desired care,18, 19 we believed that patients treated in the MICU would be more likely to receive guideline‐concordant care. The study refutes our a priori hypothesis and reveals that evidence‐based processes‐of‐care associated with improved outcomes for sepsis are similarly implemented at our institution in the primary and overflow ICU. These findings are important, as ICU bed availability is a frequent problem and many hospitals overflow patients to non‐primary ICUs.9, 20

The observed equivalence in the care delivered may be a function of the relatively high number of patients with sepsis treated in the overflow unit, thereby giving the delivery teams enough experience to provide the desired care. An alternative explanation could be that the residents in CICU brought with them the experience from having previously trained in the MICU. Although, some of the care processes for sepsis patients are influenced by the CPOE (with embedded order sets and protocols), it is unlikely that CPOE can fully account for similarity in care because many processes and therapies (like use of steroids, amount of fluid delivered in first 24 hours, packed red blood cells [PRBC] transfusion, and spontaneous breathing trials) are not embedded within order sets.

The significant difference noted in the areas of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and gastrointestinal (GI) prophylaxis within 24 hours of ICU admission was unexpected. These preventive therapies are included in initial order sets in the CPOE, which prompt physicians to order them as standard‐of‐care. With respect to DVT prophylaxis, we suspect that some of the difference might be attributable to specific contraindications to its use, which could have been more common in one of the units. There were more patients in MICU on mechanical ventilation (although not statistically significant) and with severe sepsis (statistically significant) at time of admission, which might have contributed to the difference noted in use of GI prophylaxis. It is also plausible that these differences might have disappeared if they were reassessed beyond 24 hours into the ICU admission. We cannot rule out the presence of unit‐ and physician‐level differences that contributed to this. Likewise, there was an unexpected trend towards significance, wherein more patients in CICU had spontaneous breathing trials within 24 hours of admission. This might also be explained by the higher number of patients with severe sepsis in the MICU (preempting any weaning attempts). These caveats aside, it is reassuring that, at our institution, admitting septic patients to the first available ICU bed does not adversely affect important processes‐of‐care.

One might ask whether this study's data should reassure other sites who are boarding septic patients in non‐primary ICUs. Irrespective of the number of patients studied or the degree of statistical significance of the associations, an observational study design cannot prove that boarding septic patients in non‐primary ICUs is either safe or unsafe. However, we hope that readers reflect on, and take inventory of, systems issues that may be different between unitswith an eye towards eliminating variation such that all units managing septic patients are primed to deliver guideline‐concordant care. Other hospitals that use CPOE with sepsis order sets, have protocols for sepsis care, and who train nursing and respiratory therapists to meet high standards might be pleased to see that the patients in our study received comparable, high‐quality care across the 2 units. While our data suggests that boarding patients in overflow units may be safe, these findings would need to be replicated at other sites using prospective designs to prove safety.

Length of emergency room stay prior to admission is associated with higher mortality rates.2123 At many hospitals, critical care beds are a scarce resource such that most hospitals have a policy for the triage of patients to critical care beds.24, 25 Lundberg and colleagues' study demonstrated that patients who developed septic shock on the medical wards experienced delays in receipt of intravenous fluids, inotropic agents and transfer to a critical care setting.26 Thus, rather than waiting in the ED or on the medical service for an MICU bed to become available, it may be most wise to admit a critically sick septic patient to the first available ICU bed, even to an overflow ICU. In a recent study by Sidlow and Aggarwal, 1104 patients discharged from the coronary care unit (CCU) with a non‐cardiac primary diagnosis were compared to patients admitted to the MICU in the same hospital.27 The study found no differences in patient mortality, 30‐day readmission rate, hospital LOS, ICU LOS, and safety outcomes of ventilator‐associated pneumonia and catheter‐associated bloodstream infections between ICUs. However, their study did not examine processes‐of‐care delivered between the primary ICU and the overflow unit, and did not validate the primary diagnoses of patients admitted to the ICU.

Several limitations of this study should be considered. First, this study was conducted at a single center. Second, we used a retrospective study design; however, a prospective study randomizing patients to 1 of the 2 units would likely never be possible. Third, the relatively small number of patients limited the power of the study to detect mortality differences between the units. However, this was a pilot study focused on processes of care as opposed to clinical outcomes. Fourth, it is possible that we did not capture every single patient with sepsis with our keyword search. Our use of a previously validated screening process should have limited the number of missed cases.15, 16 Fifth, although the 2 ICUs have exclusive nursing staff and attending physicians, the housestaff and respiratory therapists do rotate between the 2 ICUs and place orders in the common CPOE. The rotating housestaff may certainly represent a source for confounding, but the large numbers (>30) of evenly spread housestaff over the study period minimizes the potential for any trainee to be responsible for a large proportion of observed practice. Sixth, ICU attendings are the physicians of record and could influence the results. Because no attending physician was on service for more than 4 weeks during the study period, and patients were equally spread over this same time, concerns about clustering and biases this may have created should be minimal but cannot be ruled out. Seventh, some interventions and processes, such as antibiotic administration and measurement of lactate, may have been initiated in the ED, thereby decreasing the potential for differences between the groups. Additionally, we cannot rule out the possibility that factors other than bed availability drove the admission process (we found that the relative proportion of patients admitted to overflow ICU during hours of ambulance diversion was similar to the overflow ICU admissions during non‐ambulance diversion hours). It is possible that some selection bias by the hospitalist assigning patients to specific ICUs influenced their triage decisionsalthough all triaging doctors go through the same process of training in active bed management.11 While more patients admitted to the MICU had severe sepsis, there were no differences between groups in APACHE II or SOFA scores. However, we cannot rule out that there were other residual confounders. Finally, in a small number of cases (4/41, 10%), the CICU team consulted the MICU attending for assistance. This input had the potential to reduce disparities in care between the units.

Overflowing patients to non‐primary ICUs occurs in many hospitals. Our study demonstrates that sepsis treatment for overflow patients may be similar to that received in the primary ICU. While a large multicentered and randomized trial could determine whether significant management and outcome differences exist between primary and overflow ICUs, feasibility concerns make it unlikely that such a study will ever be conducted.

Sepsis is a major cause of death in hospitalized patients.13 It is recommended that patients with sepsis be treated with early appropriate antibiotics, as well as early goal‐directed therapy including fluid and vasopressor support according to evidence‐based guidelines.46 Following such evidence‐based protocols and process‐of‐care interventions has been shown to be associated with better patient outcomes, including decreased mortality.7, 8

Most patients with severe sepsis are cared for in intensive care units (ICUs). At times, there are no beds available in the primary ICU and patients presenting to the hospital with sepsis are cared for in other units. Patients admitted to a non‐preferred clinical inpatient setting are sometimes referred to as overflow.9 ICUs can differ significantly in staffing patterns, equipment, and training.10 It is not known if overflow sepsis patients receive similar care when admitted to non‐primary ICUs.

At our hospital, we have an active bed management system led by the hospitalist division.11 This system includes protocols to place sepsis patients in the overflow ICU if the primary ICU is full. We hypothesized that process‐of‐care interventions would be more strictly adhered to when sepsis patients were in the primary ICU rather than in the overflow unit at our institution.

METHODS

RESULTS

There were 100 patients admitted to the MICU and 41 patients admitted to the CICU during the study period (Table 1). The majority of the patients were admitted to the ICUs directly from the emergency department (ED) (n = 129), with a small number of patients who were transferred from the Medicine floors (n = 12).

There were no significant differences between the 2 study groups in terms of age, sex, primary site of infection, mean APACHE II score, SOFA scores on day 1, chronic organ insufficiency, immune suppression, or need for mechanical ventilation (Table 1). The most common site of infection was lung. There were significantly more patients with severe sepsis in the MICU (88% vs 51%, P <0.001).

DISCUSSION

Since sepsis is more commonly treated in the medical ICU and some data suggests that specialty ICUs may be better at providing desired care,18, 19 we believed that patients treated in the MICU would be more likely to receive guideline‐concordant care. The study refutes our a priori hypothesis and reveals that evidence‐based processes‐of‐care associated with improved outcomes for sepsis are similarly implemented at our institution in the primary and overflow ICU. These findings are important, as ICU bed availability is a frequent problem and many hospitals overflow patients to non‐primary ICUs.9, 20

The observed equivalence in the care delivered may be a function of the relatively high number of patients with sepsis treated in the overflow unit, thereby giving the delivery teams enough experience to provide the desired care. An alternative explanation could be that the residents in CICU brought with them the experience from having previously trained in the MICU. Although, some of the care processes for sepsis patients are influenced by the CPOE (with embedded order sets and protocols), it is unlikely that CPOE can fully account for similarity in care because many processes and therapies (like use of steroids, amount of fluid delivered in first 24 hours, packed red blood cells [PRBC] transfusion, and spontaneous breathing trials) are not embedded within order sets.

The significant difference noted in the areas of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and gastrointestinal (GI) prophylaxis within 24 hours of ICU admission was unexpected. These preventive therapies are included in initial order sets in the CPOE, which prompt physicians to order them as standard‐of‐care. With respect to DVT prophylaxis, we suspect that some of the difference might be attributable to specific contraindications to its use, which could have been more common in one of the units. There were more patients in MICU on mechanical ventilation (although not statistically significant) and with severe sepsis (statistically significant) at time of admission, which might have contributed to the difference noted in use of GI prophylaxis. It is also plausible that these differences might have disappeared if they were reassessed beyond 24 hours into the ICU admission. We cannot rule out the presence of unit‐ and physician‐level differences that contributed to this. Likewise, there was an unexpected trend towards significance, wherein more patients in CICU had spontaneous breathing trials within 24 hours of admission. This might also be explained by the higher number of patients with severe sepsis in the MICU (preempting any weaning attempts). These caveats aside, it is reassuring that, at our institution, admitting septic patients to the first available ICU bed does not adversely affect important processes‐of‐care.

One might ask whether this study's data should reassure other sites who are boarding septic patients in non‐primary ICUs. Irrespective of the number of patients studied or the degree of statistical significance of the associations, an observational study design cannot prove that boarding septic patients in non‐primary ICUs is either safe or unsafe. However, we hope that readers reflect on, and take inventory of, systems issues that may be different between unitswith an eye towards eliminating variation such that all units managing septic patients are primed to deliver guideline‐concordant care. Other hospitals that use CPOE with sepsis order sets, have protocols for sepsis care, and who train nursing and respiratory therapists to meet high standards might be pleased to see that the patients in our study received comparable, high‐quality care across the 2 units. While our data suggests that boarding patients in overflow units may be safe, these findings would need to be replicated at other sites using prospective designs to prove safety.

Length of emergency room stay prior to admission is associated with higher mortality rates.2123 At many hospitals, critical care beds are a scarce resource such that most hospitals have a policy for the triage of patients to critical care beds.24, 25 Lundberg and colleagues' study demonstrated that patients who developed septic shock on the medical wards experienced delays in receipt of intravenous fluids, inotropic agents and transfer to a critical care setting.26 Thus, rather than waiting in the ED or on the medical service for an MICU bed to become available, it may be most wise to admit a critically sick septic patient to the first available ICU bed, even to an overflow ICU. In a recent study by Sidlow and Aggarwal, 1104 patients discharged from the coronary care unit (CCU) with a non‐cardiac primary diagnosis were compared to patients admitted to the MICU in the same hospital.27 The study found no differences in patient mortality, 30‐day readmission rate, hospital LOS, ICU LOS, and safety outcomes of ventilator‐associated pneumonia and catheter‐associated bloodstream infections between ICUs. However, their study did not examine processes‐of‐care delivered between the primary ICU and the overflow unit, and did not validate the primary diagnoses of patients admitted to the ICU.

Several limitations of this study should be considered. First, this study was conducted at a single center. Second, we used a retrospective study design; however, a prospective study randomizing patients to 1 of the 2 units would likely never be possible. Third, the relatively small number of patients limited the power of the study to detect mortality differences between the units. However, this was a pilot study focused on processes of care as opposed to clinical outcomes. Fourth, it is possible that we did not capture every single patient with sepsis with our keyword search. Our use of a previously validated screening process should have limited the number of missed cases.15, 16 Fifth, although the 2 ICUs have exclusive nursing staff and attending physicians, the housestaff and respiratory therapists do rotate between the 2 ICUs and place orders in the common CPOE. The rotating housestaff may certainly represent a source for confounding, but the large numbers (>30) of evenly spread housestaff over the study period minimizes the potential for any trainee to be responsible for a large proportion of observed practice. Sixth, ICU attendings are the physicians of record and could influence the results. Because no attending physician was on service for more than 4 weeks during the study period, and patients were equally spread over this same time, concerns about clustering and biases this may have created should be minimal but cannot be ruled out. Seventh, some interventions and processes, such as antibiotic administration and measurement of lactate, may have been initiated in the ED, thereby decreasing the potential for differences between the groups. Additionally, we cannot rule out the possibility that factors other than bed availability drove the admission process (we found that the relative proportion of patients admitted to overflow ICU during hours of ambulance diversion was similar to the overflow ICU admissions during non‐ambulance diversion hours). It is possible that some selection bias by the hospitalist assigning patients to specific ICUs influenced their triage decisionsalthough all triaging doctors go through the same process of training in active bed management.11 While more patients admitted to the MICU had severe sepsis, there were no differences between groups in APACHE II or SOFA scores. However, we cannot rule out that there were other residual confounders. Finally, in a small number of cases (4/41, 10%), the CICU team consulted the MICU attending for assistance. This input had the potential to reduce disparities in care between the units.

Overflowing patients to non‐primary ICUs occurs in many hospitals. Our study demonstrates that sepsis treatment for overflow patients may be similar to that received in the primary ICU. While a large multicentered and randomized trial could determine whether significant management and outcome differences exist between primary and overflow ICUs, feasibility concerns make it unlikely that such a study will ever be conducted.