Article Type
Article
Changed
Thu, 12/23/2021 - 10:24
Author(s)
Steven R. Smith, MS, JD
Joseph S. Sanfilippo, MD, MBA

 

The Supreme Court’s usual processes were disrupted this term. The COVID-19 pandemic required audio hearings rather than in-person, and it resulted in a number of emergency legal appeals. As the Court began its regular sessions on October 5, 2020, there were only 8 justices—Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg had passed away and Amy Coney Barrett had not yet been confirmed by the Senate. The Court decided many important cases this term, including dealing with the delivery of drugs to induce abortions, a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) moratorium on housing evictions, yet another case on the Affordable Care Act, state laws concerning pharmacy benefit managers, and the Hologic and Minerva endometrial ablation systems patents. After considering these cases, we also will briefly look at other cases of general interest.

Abortion

Patient access to mifepristone

In May 2020, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) was the named plaintiff in a lawsuit against the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regarding the drugs mifepristone and misoprostol that are used to induce medical abortions.1 The case was filed by the American Civil Liberties Union on behalf of ACOG and others2,3 and raised the issue of patients’ access to these medications. The basic claim of the case was that during the pandemic, the FDA’s regulation of mifepristone was unconstitutional in that they imposed an undue burden on the decision of women to have an abortion.4 (Although misoprostol is a part of the medical abortion regimen, it is not subject to special regulation and was not part of the litigation.)

The FDA regulation of mifepristone, begun in 2000 but modified since then, includes 3 elements to assure safe use:

  • prescribers must have special training or certification
  • the drug can be dispensed to patients only in a hospital, clinic, or medical office under the supervision of a certified health care provider (known as the “in-person dispensing requirement” because retail pharmacy or mail distribution are prohibited)
  • the health care provider must review a “patient agreement form” with the patient and have the patient sign the consent form in the provider’s presence.5

The pandemic made fulfilling these requirements substantially more burdensome and difficult. The question was whether the FDA was constitutionally required to modify its regulations during a pandemic to take account of the undue burden of the regulation created by the pandemic. That is, the question was not whether the FDA could have or should have chosen to make the modification, but whether it was required to do so.

In July 2020, a federal district court in Maryland held that the FDA regulation was an unconstitutional burden on the abortion rights of women during the pandemic and issued a preliminary injunction to stop the FDA from enforcing the in-person dispensing and signature rules. The district judge applied the injunction to Maryland, but also made it a nationwide injunction. (The issue of district court nationwide injunctions is considered in, “District court ‘nationwide injunctions’”). 

The FDA asked the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals to stay the enforcement of the injunction, which the appeals court denied. The FDA then appealed to the Supreme Court, asking it to stay the injunction. In October 2020, the Court announced that it was holding the FDA’s request “in abeyance” to allow the district court to consider a motion by the FDA to dissolve or change the injunction. It gave the district court 40 days in which to act. That decision by the Court was in the “Shadow Docket” (see sidebar on page XX), so the exact vote of the Court in October is not clear, but 2 Justices (Alito and Thomas) dissented and would have stayed the injunction.6 Over the next 40 days, the district court did not withdraw its nationwide injunction.

Thus, on January 12, 2021, the case was again before the Supreme Court, which let the FDA’s regulations regarding mifepristone remain in place by lifting the district court’s injunction. Most of the justices supporting the stay did not write to explain their decision, although their dissent in the earlier cases may have served that purpose. (Maryland was permitting many kinds of activity that were more risky than visiting a clinic—indoor dining, with open hair salons, gyms, and casinos.)7 Chief Justice Roberts wrote a concurrence to indicate that, in his view, the issue was not whether the FDA’s regulations placed an undue burden on a right to an abortion generally, but that “My view is that courts owe significant deference” to the public health authorities (here meaning the FDA). Justices Sotomayor and Kagan dissented, saying that the issue was the undue burden on women, given the difficulties of the pandemic, particularly going to medical facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic.8

The injunction, sought by ACOG and others, was issued by the district court and was in effect for several months before it was dissolved by the Supreme Court. Following the change in presidential administrations, in April 2021 the FDA announced that it was going to “exercise enforcement discretion with respect to the in-person dispensing requirement…during the COVID-19 public health emergency.”9

Continue to: The Texas abortion case...

 

 

The Texas abortion case

The Court, on September 1, 2021, declined to block a Texas abortion statute from taking effect.10 This law precludes abortions after a fetal heartbeat is present at about 6 weeks of gestation. The Fifth Circuit declined to grant an injunction delaying implementation of the Texas law, and the Court did not reverse that decision.

Over the years, a variety of states have placed limitations on abortion, and those almost always have been enjoined by federal courts before they went into effect. However, the Texas statute, which undoubtedly is unconstitutional, was creatively constructed to avoid an early injunction.11 The statute does not allow state officials to enforce the new law, but rather it allows almost any private citizen to seek monetary damages from anyone performing an abortion or who “aids and abets” an abortion. Thus, it is difficult to tailor a lawsuit before this law is enforced. First, courts do not enjoin laws; they usually enjoin individuals from enforcing the law, and in this case it is difficult to know which individuals will be enforcing the laws and what their decisions might be. There also are some questions about the degree to which federal courts can enjoin state courts from deciding lawsuits under state law. For these procedural reasons, the majority of the Court found that those attacking the Texas law had not met their burden of showing that that they would win their case.

Even 3 of the dissenting justices said the defendants may be right that “existing doctrines preclude judicial intervention,” but that the consequences are such that the Court should delay the law until there is time for briefing and argument. The other 3 dissenting justices thought there would be ways of getting around the clever roadblock Texas had erected for the federal courts.

There has been some commentary that this case portends the abandonment of Roe v Wade and Casey,12 but that conclusion does not seem warranted by this case. The Court has accepted a Mississippi abortion law to be heard next term.13 In addition, the Texas statute is likely to be back in federal court once a private individual has filed a claim for money from an abortion provider (and likely even before that).

COVID-19 cases

The Supreme Court decided several cases related to COVID-19, including adjustments to election procedures, church services, and CDC eviction moratoria. As a general matter early in the pandemic, the Court deferred to government authorities, generally upholding government actions. Chief Justice Roberts emphasized the importance of the Court deferring to government officials in emergencies. As the pandemic progressed into 2021, however, the Court became less and less sympathetic to government actions that were not consistent, permitted by existing law, or reasonably necessary. For example, regulations of churches that were inconsistent with the regulation of similar organizations were struck down.14

Among the most interesting of the summer 2021 cases was the CDC eviction moratorium that essentially prohibited landlords nationwide from evicting tenants for nonpayment of rent. When the challenges to these CDC regulations first reached the Court, the moratorium was about to expire; in a 5-4 decision, the Court did not enjoin the CDC from continuing that policy. Justice Kavanaugh (the fifth vote) warned that “clear and specific congressional authorization…would be necessary to extend the moratorium past July 31.”15 Despite telling the Court that the moratorium would expire on July 31, just 3 days after the expiration and without any congressional authorization, the CDC reinstated what was practically the same moratorium.16 On August 26, the Court struck down the reinstated regulation, probably by a 6-3 margin. (Because this case arose in the “Shadow Docket,” the vote of some justices is not certain).17

Continue to: The Affordable Care Act...

 

 

The Affordable Care Act

The Affordable Care Act was challenged in the Court for the third time.18 In this term’s case, several states argued that when Congress essentially eliminated the penalty/tax for not purchasing insurance coverage, there was no longer a constitutional basis for the individual mandate. With that centerpiece gone, they claimed, the whole statute should be declared unconstitutional.

Along with many other specialty groups, ACOG joined an amicus curiae brief sponsored by the American Medical Association (AMA).19 An amicus brief is one not filed by the parties to the case, but by organizations or individuals who have information that may be of use to the Court in considering the case. Among other things, the filing of an amicus brief indicates the interest of the organization in the outcome of the case. In this case, the crux of the amicus was that even if the individual mandate currently is not constitutional, the Court should sever that provision and retain the rest of the ACA.

Despite some wild predictions about what the Court might do, it did not decide any substantive issue. Rather, it found that none of the parties to the case had “standing” to challenge the constitutionality of the ACA. Therefore, in effect, the Court dismissed the case without deciding the substantive legal issues.
 

Pharmacy Benefit Managers

The powerful Pharmacy Benefit Managers (PBMs) are a hidden part of the health care system; however, in recent years there has been increasing regulatory attention paid to them. Some states have begun regulating aspects of PBMs. In this term, the Court considered an Arkansas law that sought to protect local pharmacies from PBM pricing practices.20 The AMA filed an amicus brief in the case which made legal arguments, most of which had been made by the parties to the litigation.21

PBMs generally tell pharmacies how much they will reimburse the pharmacy for filling a prescription for a particular drug. In some instances, PBMs will set a reimbursement price that is lower than the wholesale price at which local pharmacies can purchase the drug. The Arkansas law prohibited PBMs in the state from reimbursing pharmacies for less than the wholesale cost the pharmacy paid for the drug.

The claim of the PBMs was that the Arkansas law violated the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA). In part, this act preempts state law that relates to fringe benefit plans. States have the authority to regulate insurance, but ERISA limits what they can do when the insurance relates to fringe benefits. The Court held that ERISA does not preempt the Arkansas law or similar state laws in other states. Because the state law was not preempted by the state law, the Arkansas regulation was upheld. The fact that this was a unanimous decision (8-0, because Justice Barrett was not on the Court when the case was heard) suggests that states may have leeway in additional regulations of PBMs, and it would not be surprising to see more of that state regulation in the future.

Continue to: Patent uncertainty...

 

 

Patent uncertainty

Csaba Truckai invented and patented the NovaSure System ablation device with a “moisture permeable” head. He sold his company and the related patents, which eventually were purchased by Hologic. Over time, Hologic added claims to the original patent. In the meantime, Truckai went on to invent another device, the Minerva Endometrial Ablation System (MEAS), which had a “moisture impermeable” head. (Note that the “Minerva Surgical, Inc.” involved in this case is not related to the company “Minerva Industries,” which some identified as a “patent troll.”)22

Hologic sued Minerva, claiming that Truckai’s second device (MEAS) infringed on its patent for the first device (NovaSure). Truckai’s defense was that the patent on NovaSure was invalid. Hologic felt that since Truckai had obtained that patent and then sold it, it was improper for him now to claim it was invalid. There is a doctrine for that: assignor estoppel—the person who sold (assigned) the patent is prevented from later claiming it was invalid. The question in this case was whether assignor estoppel is part of the patent law of the United States. It is not in the patent statutes, so it is a court-determined part of the law.

In a 5-4 decision this Term, the Court held that assignor estoppel is recognized, but that it is narrow.23 The Court identified several exceptions to assignor estoppel, notably for this case, including the situation in which the purchaser of the patent, after the purchase, returns to the Patent and Trademark Office to expand (amend) the patent’s claims. In that case, the seller could not be estopped by the amended terms of the patent. Minerva claimed that it was attacking the expanded patent that included changes made after it sold the patent. The Court, therefore, returned the case to the Federal Circuit to apply the principles it laid out about assignor estoppel.

Biotech and other fast-moving fields frequently have new technology building on slightly earlier technology. The current patent system often leaves uncertainty about who owns which part of a valid patent. This uncertainty is a drag on innovation, and the patent system is supposed to spur innovation. Assignor estoppel is likely to create additional complexity and uncertainty in some patents, which is regrettable.
 

Review of the Term

In addition to the other disruptions of the Term, during the first part of the Term, Amy Coney Barrett was not yet confirmed by the Senate, so there were only 8 justices until October 27. She did not participate in those cases that were heard before she joined the Court. The consensus is that the Court heard 67 cases: 57 were formally briefed and argued along with 8 summary reversals and 2 religious cases in the Shadow Docket. In my opinion, this undercounts both the number and the importance of the Shadow Docket cases, but the following data use the 67 case convention.24

The Court was unanimous in 43% of the cases, including some of the most divisive issues. That unanimity reflects very narrow decisions. There were (by conventional count) only eight 5-4 opinions (12%), an unusually low number. Justice Kavanaugh is viewed as the “median” justice. He was in the majority in 97% of all cases. Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Barrett were in the majority 91%, and Justice Gorsuch 90%. As for the other justices, they were in the majority (all cases) most of the time: Justice Alito, 83%; Justice Thomas, 81%; Justice Breyer, 76%; Justice Kagan, 75%; and Justice Sotomayor, 69%. In “divided cases” (when unanimous cases are removed), the percentages are: Justice Kavanaugh, 95%; Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Barrett, 84%; Justice Gorsuch, 82%; Justice Alito, 70%; Justice Thomas, 66%; Justice Breyer, 58%; Justice Kagan, 55%; and Justice Sotomayor, 45%.

When the term began, many Court watchers expected a relatively uninteresting term, dealing with many technical legal details. In fact, it turned out to be more interesting and important than expected, even with narrow holdings in important cases. Part of the secret of the term was that a lot of the real action was in the Shadow Docket. The end of the term is sometimes the moment when a justice announces a plan to retire. Many commentators expected Justice Breyer might announce—he has been under pressure to do so, to allow President Biden to nominate and a Democratic Senate to confirm a progressive justice. However, he did not do so. It is possible that he will announce his retirement to be effective when his successor is confirmed, but that is pure speculation.
 

Continue to: Next Term...

 

 

Next Term

The next term began on Monday, October 4, 2021. With the considerable current activity in the Shadow Docket, there was not much of a summer break. The coming term looks extraordinary. The headline case is an abortion case from Mississippi, Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization.25 The legal question is the constitutionality of Mississippi law that prohibits most abortions after 15 weeks of gestation. The Texas abortion law will also be back before the Court. As we saw this term, big cases may produce very narrow results, but this case has the potential for being a notable abortion decision.

In a different case the Court will decide whether a state attorney general can step in to defend an abortion law when the state health secretary does not do so.26

The Court also has accepted 3 cases dealing with reimbursement for health services. One deals with whether or not the Department of Health and Human Services can set reimbursement rates without good survey data regarding costs,27 another involves the calculation of additional payments for hospitals that serve a “disproportionate number of low-income patients,”28 and the third whether state Medicaid programs can take funds from an injured beneficiary’s tort recovery to cover future Medicaid costs.29

In other cases, the Court will review a gun control law from New York. The Court’s earlier Second Amendment cases involved guns in the home used for self-defense, but this case raises the question of whether a state can practically preclude “concealed-carry licenses.”30 Many experts believe the Court will accept a case dealing with racial preferences in college admissions, perhaps the Harvard case in which the claim is discrimination against Asian Americans.31

The ACOG mifepristone case was interesting, in part because the federal district court issued a nationwide injunction against the Americans with Disabilities Act, enforcing its rules anywhere in the country. The effect of these orders is for a single district judge to create the “law of the land,” at least until that is reviewed—which can take months. The advantage of the nationwide injunction is that it avoids having to repeatedly litigate the same issues in multiple courts around the country. The downside is that plaintiffs can seek out a nonrepresentative judge or circuit and receive an injunction that would be granted by few other circuits. In addition, a nationwide injunction can apply to specific circumstances that are not before the court issuing the injunction. In the mifepristone case, for example, 10 states requested to intervene in the ACOG case. The court rejected the request, but the nationwide injunction applied to those states.1

Although federal judges have had the authority to issue nationwide injunctions for years, they are becoming much more common. One reason is the ease of forum shopping noted earlier—organizations can cherry-pick district courts and circuits sympathetic to their views. Both left- and right-leaning organizations have learned this lesson, so left-leaning groups are likely to file in specific districts in the Ninth Circuit, and right-leaning groups to districts in the Fifth Circuit.

If the current trend of increasing nationwide injunctions continues, either the rules for the federal courts or congressional action may be required to reduce some of the abuses by both sides of the political spectrum.

District court “nationwide injunctions”

The ACOG mifepristone case was interesting, in part because the federal district court issued a nationwide injunction against the Americans with Disabilities Act, enforcing its rules anywhere in the country. The effect of these orders is for a single district judge to create the “law of the land,” at least until that is reviewed—which can take months. The advantage of the nationwide injunction is that it avoids having to repeatedly litigate the same issues in multiple courts around the country. The downside is that plaintiffs can seek out a nonrepresentative judge or circuit and receive an injunction that would be granted by few other circuits. In addition, a nationwide injunction can apply to specific circumstances that are not before the court issuing the injunction. In the mifepristone case, for example, 10 states requested to intervene in the ACOG case. The court rejected the request, but the nationwide injunction applied to those states.1

Although federal judges have had the authority to issue nationwide injunctions for years, they are becoming much more common. One reason is the ease of forum shopping noted earlier—organizations can cherry-pick district courts and circuits sympathetic to their views. Both left- and right-leaning organizations have learned this lesson, so left-leaning groups are likely to file in specific districts in the Ninth Circuit, and right-leaning groups to districts in the Fifth Circuit.

If the current trend of increasing nationwide injunctions continues, either the rules for the federal courts or congressional action may be required to reduce some of the abuses by both sides of the political spectrum. Reference Am. Coll. of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 467 F. Supp. 3d 282, 284 (D. Md. 2020).

Reference

1. Am. Coll. of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 467 F. Supp. 3d 282, 284 (D. Md. 2020).

 

The “Shadow Docket”

The ACOG mifepristone decisions do not appear on the Supreme Court’s “Court Opinions” website.1 They appear in what has become known in recent years as “The Shadow Docket,” an informal term that includes many orders of the Court and statements of individual justices regarding some cases.2 There are hundreds of orders by the Court each Term, there is nothing particularly shadowy about any of these items—they are all publicly available on the Court’s website and later in paper format. It is, however, a little harder to find and much harder to sort through than the major opinions. In some cases, it is not possible to tell what the vote was, how each justice voted, and what the reasoning of the Court was. In a few cases it is difficult to know exactly what the Court was holding or otherwise leaves some confusion about what the law actually is.3

The part of the Shadow Docket that is most intriguing for commentators, and where the ACOG cases appear, is the “Opinions Relating to Orders.”4 These are a variety of opinions, some written by the Court and many by individual justices. It also includes the action of the Court in some cases in which there was not full briefing or oral argument. The statements by justices often are to dissent from the denial of cert of decisions of the Court. These opinions have become much more common over the years. In this past term, there were approximately 60 such opinions related to about 50 cases. In part, this relates to the number of pandemic cases that could not wait for a Court decision going through the extended ordinary process. Although the Shadow Docket has been of interest to academic observers and Court watchers for years, this year it has attracted the attention of Congress.5

References

1. Opinions of the Court. Supreme Court website. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/slipopinion/20#list. Accessed October 10, 2021.

2. Baude W. Foreword: the Supreme Court’s Shadow Docket, 9 N.Y.U. J.L. & Liberty 1 (2015).

3. Vladeck SI. The Solicitor General and the Shadow Docket, 133 Harvard Law Review. 123 (2019).

4. Opinions relating to orders. Supreme Court website. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/relatingtoorders/20#list. Accessed October 10, 2021.

5. The Supreme Court’s Shadow Docket: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Intellectual Property and the Internet of the H. Committee on the Judiciary, 117th Congress (2021).

 

 

References
  1. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 472 F. Supp. 3d 183 (D. Md. 2020).
  2. Michael Kunzelman, Doctors Sue to Block FDA Abortion Pill Rule During Pandemic, (May 29, 2020).
  3. ACLU, American College Of Obstetricians And Gynecologists V. U.S. Food And Drug Administration, https://www.aclu.org/cases/american-college-obstetricians-and-gynecologists-v-us-food-and-drug-administration. Updated February 12, 2021. Accessed August 27, 2021.
  4. Whole Woman’s Health v Hellerstedt, 579 US ___ (2016), 136 S Ct 2292.
  5. 2016 Clinical Review at 39, 47, 49, Opp’n Mot. PI Ex. 19, ECF No. 62-11.
  6. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists v FDA (I), decided October 8, 2020.
  7. October 8, 2020, dissenting opinion by Justice Alito.
  8. January 12, 2021, dissenting opinion by Justice Sotomayor.
  9. Questions and answers on Mifeprex. U.S. Food and Drug Administration website. Published April 13, 2021. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/postmarket-drug-safety-information-patients-and-providers/questions-and-answers-mifeprex. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  10. Whole Woman’s Health v Jackson, decided September 1, 2021.
  11. Texas Senate Bill 8, relating to abortion, including abortions after detection of unborn child’s heartbeat; authorizing a private civil right of action. LegiScan website. https://legiscan.com/TX/text/SB8/id/2395961. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  12. Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v Casey, 505 U. S. 833 (1992); Roe v Wade, 410 U. S. 113 (1973).
  13. Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization, No. 19-1392.
  14. Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v Cuomo, decided November 25, 2020.
  15. Alabama Association of Realtors v Department of Health and Human Services, decided June 29, 2021.
  16. Temporary halt in residential evictions in communities with substantial or high levels of community transmission of COVID-19 to prevent the further spread of COVID-19. August 6, 2021. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/08/06/2021-16945/temporary-halt-in-residential-evictions-in-communities-with-substantial-or-high-transmission-of.
  17. Alabama Association of Realtors v Department of Health and Human Services, decided August 26, 2021.
  18. California v Texas, decided June 17, 2021.
  19. Brief of Amici Curiae American Medical Association, American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, Aerospace Medical Association, American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Cardiology, American College of Emergency Physicians, American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American College of Physicians, American College of Radiation Oncology, American College of Radiology, American Psychiatric Association, American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, American Society of Hematology, American Society of Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery, Endocrine Society, GLMA: Health Professionals Advancing LGBTQ Equality, Renal Physicians Association, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Interventional Radiology in Support of Petitioners, in California v. Texas. May 13, 2020. https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/19/19-840/143469/20200513150051995_19-840%20Amici%20Brief%20AMA.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  20. Rutledge v Pharmaceutical Care Management Association, decided December 10, 2020.
  21. Brief of the American Medical Association, The Arkansas Medical Society, and The Litigation Center of the American Medical Association and the State Medical Societies as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioner in Rutledge v Pharmaceutical Care Management Association. March 2, 2020. https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/18/18-540/134670/20200302163622018_Rutledge%20v.%20PCMA%20Amicus%20Brief%20of%20AMA%20et%20al.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  22. Apple quietly settles patent lawsuit, promptly gets hit with another one. TechCrunch website. Published July 30, 2010. https://techcrunch.com/2010/07/30/apple-minerva-emblaze/. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  23. Minerva Surgical, Inc. v Hologic, Inc., decided June 29, 2021.
  24. Stat pack. SCOTUS Blog website. Published July 6, 2021. https://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Final-Stat-Pack-7.6.21.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  25. Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization, No. 19-1392.
  26. Cameron v. EMW Women’s Surgical Center, https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/cameron-v-emw-womens-surgical-center-p-s-c/. Accessed August 28, 2021.
  27. American Hospital Association v Becerra, No. 20-1114.
  28. Becerra v Empire Health Foundation, No. 20-1312.
  29. Gallardo v Marstiller, No. 20-1263.
  30. New York State Rifle & Pistol Association Inc. v Corlett, No. 20-843.
  31. Students for Fair Admissions v President & Fellows of Harvard College, No. 20-1199.
Author and Disclosure Information

Dr. Sanfilippo is Professor, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, and Academic Division Director, Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Magee-Womens Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He also serves on the OBG Management Board of Editors.

Mr. Smith is Professor Emeritus and Dean Emeritus at California Western School of Law, San Diego, California.
 

The authors report no financial relationships relevant to this article.

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Steven R. Smith, MS, JD
Joseph S. Sanfilippo, MD, MBA
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Joseph S. Sanfilippo, MD, MBA
Author and Disclosure Information

Dr. Sanfilippo is Professor, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, and Academic Division Director, Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Magee-Womens Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He also serves on the OBG Management Board of Editors.

Mr. Smith is Professor Emeritus and Dean Emeritus at California Western School of Law, San Diego, California.
 

The authors report no financial relationships relevant to this article.

Author and Disclosure Information

Dr. Sanfilippo is Professor, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, and Academic Division Director, Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Magee-Womens Hospital, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He also serves on the OBG Management Board of Editors.

Mr. Smith is Professor Emeritus and Dean Emeritus at California Western School of Law, San Diego, California.
 

The authors report no financial relationships relevant to this article.

 

The Supreme Court’s usual processes were disrupted this term. The COVID-19 pandemic required audio hearings rather than in-person, and it resulted in a number of emergency legal appeals. As the Court began its regular sessions on October 5, 2020, there were only 8 justices—Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg had passed away and Amy Coney Barrett had not yet been confirmed by the Senate. The Court decided many important cases this term, including dealing with the delivery of drugs to induce abortions, a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) moratorium on housing evictions, yet another case on the Affordable Care Act, state laws concerning pharmacy benefit managers, and the Hologic and Minerva endometrial ablation systems patents. After considering these cases, we also will briefly look at other cases of general interest.

Abortion

Patient access to mifepristone

In May 2020, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) was the named plaintiff in a lawsuit against the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regarding the drugs mifepristone and misoprostol that are used to induce medical abortions.1 The case was filed by the American Civil Liberties Union on behalf of ACOG and others2,3 and raised the issue of patients’ access to these medications. The basic claim of the case was that during the pandemic, the FDA’s regulation of mifepristone was unconstitutional in that they imposed an undue burden on the decision of women to have an abortion.4 (Although misoprostol is a part of the medical abortion regimen, it is not subject to special regulation and was not part of the litigation.)

The FDA regulation of mifepristone, begun in 2000 but modified since then, includes 3 elements to assure safe use:

  • prescribers must have special training or certification
  • the drug can be dispensed to patients only in a hospital, clinic, or medical office under the supervision of a certified health care provider (known as the “in-person dispensing requirement” because retail pharmacy or mail distribution are prohibited)
  • the health care provider must review a “patient agreement form” with the patient and have the patient sign the consent form in the provider’s presence.5

The pandemic made fulfilling these requirements substantially more burdensome and difficult. The question was whether the FDA was constitutionally required to modify its regulations during a pandemic to take account of the undue burden of the regulation created by the pandemic. That is, the question was not whether the FDA could have or should have chosen to make the modification, but whether it was required to do so.

In July 2020, a federal district court in Maryland held that the FDA regulation was an unconstitutional burden on the abortion rights of women during the pandemic and issued a preliminary injunction to stop the FDA from enforcing the in-person dispensing and signature rules. The district judge applied the injunction to Maryland, but also made it a nationwide injunction. (The issue of district court nationwide injunctions is considered in, “District court ‘nationwide injunctions’”). 

The FDA asked the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals to stay the enforcement of the injunction, which the appeals court denied. The FDA then appealed to the Supreme Court, asking it to stay the injunction. In October 2020, the Court announced that it was holding the FDA’s request “in abeyance” to allow the district court to consider a motion by the FDA to dissolve or change the injunction. It gave the district court 40 days in which to act. That decision by the Court was in the “Shadow Docket” (see sidebar on page XX), so the exact vote of the Court in October is not clear, but 2 Justices (Alito and Thomas) dissented and would have stayed the injunction.6 Over the next 40 days, the district court did not withdraw its nationwide injunction.

Thus, on January 12, 2021, the case was again before the Supreme Court, which let the FDA’s regulations regarding mifepristone remain in place by lifting the district court’s injunction. Most of the justices supporting the stay did not write to explain their decision, although their dissent in the earlier cases may have served that purpose. (Maryland was permitting many kinds of activity that were more risky than visiting a clinic—indoor dining, with open hair salons, gyms, and casinos.)7 Chief Justice Roberts wrote a concurrence to indicate that, in his view, the issue was not whether the FDA’s regulations placed an undue burden on a right to an abortion generally, but that “My view is that courts owe significant deference” to the public health authorities (here meaning the FDA). Justices Sotomayor and Kagan dissented, saying that the issue was the undue burden on women, given the difficulties of the pandemic, particularly going to medical facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic.8

The injunction, sought by ACOG and others, was issued by the district court and was in effect for several months before it was dissolved by the Supreme Court. Following the change in presidential administrations, in April 2021 the FDA announced that it was going to “exercise enforcement discretion with respect to the in-person dispensing requirement…during the COVID-19 public health emergency.”9

Continue to: The Texas abortion case...

 

 

The Texas abortion case

The Court, on September 1, 2021, declined to block a Texas abortion statute from taking effect.10 This law precludes abortions after a fetal heartbeat is present at about 6 weeks of gestation. The Fifth Circuit declined to grant an injunction delaying implementation of the Texas law, and the Court did not reverse that decision.

Over the years, a variety of states have placed limitations on abortion, and those almost always have been enjoined by federal courts before they went into effect. However, the Texas statute, which undoubtedly is unconstitutional, was creatively constructed to avoid an early injunction.11 The statute does not allow state officials to enforce the new law, but rather it allows almost any private citizen to seek monetary damages from anyone performing an abortion or who “aids and abets” an abortion. Thus, it is difficult to tailor a lawsuit before this law is enforced. First, courts do not enjoin laws; they usually enjoin individuals from enforcing the law, and in this case it is difficult to know which individuals will be enforcing the laws and what their decisions might be. There also are some questions about the degree to which federal courts can enjoin state courts from deciding lawsuits under state law. For these procedural reasons, the majority of the Court found that those attacking the Texas law had not met their burden of showing that that they would win their case.

Even 3 of the dissenting justices said the defendants may be right that “existing doctrines preclude judicial intervention,” but that the consequences are such that the Court should delay the law until there is time for briefing and argument. The other 3 dissenting justices thought there would be ways of getting around the clever roadblock Texas had erected for the federal courts.

There has been some commentary that this case portends the abandonment of Roe v Wade and Casey,12 but that conclusion does not seem warranted by this case. The Court has accepted a Mississippi abortion law to be heard next term.13 In addition, the Texas statute is likely to be back in federal court once a private individual has filed a claim for money from an abortion provider (and likely even before that).

COVID-19 cases

The Supreme Court decided several cases related to COVID-19, including adjustments to election procedures, church services, and CDC eviction moratoria. As a general matter early in the pandemic, the Court deferred to government authorities, generally upholding government actions. Chief Justice Roberts emphasized the importance of the Court deferring to government officials in emergencies. As the pandemic progressed into 2021, however, the Court became less and less sympathetic to government actions that were not consistent, permitted by existing law, or reasonably necessary. For example, regulations of churches that were inconsistent with the regulation of similar organizations were struck down.14

Among the most interesting of the summer 2021 cases was the CDC eviction moratorium that essentially prohibited landlords nationwide from evicting tenants for nonpayment of rent. When the challenges to these CDC regulations first reached the Court, the moratorium was about to expire; in a 5-4 decision, the Court did not enjoin the CDC from continuing that policy. Justice Kavanaugh (the fifth vote) warned that “clear and specific congressional authorization…would be necessary to extend the moratorium past July 31.”15 Despite telling the Court that the moratorium would expire on July 31, just 3 days after the expiration and without any congressional authorization, the CDC reinstated what was practically the same moratorium.16 On August 26, the Court struck down the reinstated regulation, probably by a 6-3 margin. (Because this case arose in the “Shadow Docket,” the vote of some justices is not certain).17

Continue to: The Affordable Care Act...

 

 

The Affordable Care Act

The Affordable Care Act was challenged in the Court for the third time.18 In this term’s case, several states argued that when Congress essentially eliminated the penalty/tax for not purchasing insurance coverage, there was no longer a constitutional basis for the individual mandate. With that centerpiece gone, they claimed, the whole statute should be declared unconstitutional.

Along with many other specialty groups, ACOG joined an amicus curiae brief sponsored by the American Medical Association (AMA).19 An amicus brief is one not filed by the parties to the case, but by organizations or individuals who have information that may be of use to the Court in considering the case. Among other things, the filing of an amicus brief indicates the interest of the organization in the outcome of the case. In this case, the crux of the amicus was that even if the individual mandate currently is not constitutional, the Court should sever that provision and retain the rest of the ACA.

Despite some wild predictions about what the Court might do, it did not decide any substantive issue. Rather, it found that none of the parties to the case had “standing” to challenge the constitutionality of the ACA. Therefore, in effect, the Court dismissed the case without deciding the substantive legal issues.
 

Pharmacy Benefit Managers

The powerful Pharmacy Benefit Managers (PBMs) are a hidden part of the health care system; however, in recent years there has been increasing regulatory attention paid to them. Some states have begun regulating aspects of PBMs. In this term, the Court considered an Arkansas law that sought to protect local pharmacies from PBM pricing practices.20 The AMA filed an amicus brief in the case which made legal arguments, most of which had been made by the parties to the litigation.21

PBMs generally tell pharmacies how much they will reimburse the pharmacy for filling a prescription for a particular drug. In some instances, PBMs will set a reimbursement price that is lower than the wholesale price at which local pharmacies can purchase the drug. The Arkansas law prohibited PBMs in the state from reimbursing pharmacies for less than the wholesale cost the pharmacy paid for the drug.

The claim of the PBMs was that the Arkansas law violated the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA). In part, this act preempts state law that relates to fringe benefit plans. States have the authority to regulate insurance, but ERISA limits what they can do when the insurance relates to fringe benefits. The Court held that ERISA does not preempt the Arkansas law or similar state laws in other states. Because the state law was not preempted by the state law, the Arkansas regulation was upheld. The fact that this was a unanimous decision (8-0, because Justice Barrett was not on the Court when the case was heard) suggests that states may have leeway in additional regulations of PBMs, and it would not be surprising to see more of that state regulation in the future.

Continue to: Patent uncertainty...

 

 

Patent uncertainty

Csaba Truckai invented and patented the NovaSure System ablation device with a “moisture permeable” head. He sold his company and the related patents, which eventually were purchased by Hologic. Over time, Hologic added claims to the original patent. In the meantime, Truckai went on to invent another device, the Minerva Endometrial Ablation System (MEAS), which had a “moisture impermeable” head. (Note that the “Minerva Surgical, Inc.” involved in this case is not related to the company “Minerva Industries,” which some identified as a “patent troll.”)22

Hologic sued Minerva, claiming that Truckai’s second device (MEAS) infringed on its patent for the first device (NovaSure). Truckai’s defense was that the patent on NovaSure was invalid. Hologic felt that since Truckai had obtained that patent and then sold it, it was improper for him now to claim it was invalid. There is a doctrine for that: assignor estoppel—the person who sold (assigned) the patent is prevented from later claiming it was invalid. The question in this case was whether assignor estoppel is part of the patent law of the United States. It is not in the patent statutes, so it is a court-determined part of the law.

In a 5-4 decision this Term, the Court held that assignor estoppel is recognized, but that it is narrow.23 The Court identified several exceptions to assignor estoppel, notably for this case, including the situation in which the purchaser of the patent, after the purchase, returns to the Patent and Trademark Office to expand (amend) the patent’s claims. In that case, the seller could not be estopped by the amended terms of the patent. Minerva claimed that it was attacking the expanded patent that included changes made after it sold the patent. The Court, therefore, returned the case to the Federal Circuit to apply the principles it laid out about assignor estoppel.

Biotech and other fast-moving fields frequently have new technology building on slightly earlier technology. The current patent system often leaves uncertainty about who owns which part of a valid patent. This uncertainty is a drag on innovation, and the patent system is supposed to spur innovation. Assignor estoppel is likely to create additional complexity and uncertainty in some patents, which is regrettable.
 

Review of the Term

In addition to the other disruptions of the Term, during the first part of the Term, Amy Coney Barrett was not yet confirmed by the Senate, so there were only 8 justices until October 27. She did not participate in those cases that were heard before she joined the Court. The consensus is that the Court heard 67 cases: 57 were formally briefed and argued along with 8 summary reversals and 2 religious cases in the Shadow Docket. In my opinion, this undercounts both the number and the importance of the Shadow Docket cases, but the following data use the 67 case convention.24

The Court was unanimous in 43% of the cases, including some of the most divisive issues. That unanimity reflects very narrow decisions. There were (by conventional count) only eight 5-4 opinions (12%), an unusually low number. Justice Kavanaugh is viewed as the “median” justice. He was in the majority in 97% of all cases. Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Barrett were in the majority 91%, and Justice Gorsuch 90%. As for the other justices, they were in the majority (all cases) most of the time: Justice Alito, 83%; Justice Thomas, 81%; Justice Breyer, 76%; Justice Kagan, 75%; and Justice Sotomayor, 69%. In “divided cases” (when unanimous cases are removed), the percentages are: Justice Kavanaugh, 95%; Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Barrett, 84%; Justice Gorsuch, 82%; Justice Alito, 70%; Justice Thomas, 66%; Justice Breyer, 58%; Justice Kagan, 55%; and Justice Sotomayor, 45%.

When the term began, many Court watchers expected a relatively uninteresting term, dealing with many technical legal details. In fact, it turned out to be more interesting and important than expected, even with narrow holdings in important cases. Part of the secret of the term was that a lot of the real action was in the Shadow Docket. The end of the term is sometimes the moment when a justice announces a plan to retire. Many commentators expected Justice Breyer might announce—he has been under pressure to do so, to allow President Biden to nominate and a Democratic Senate to confirm a progressive justice. However, he did not do so. It is possible that he will announce his retirement to be effective when his successor is confirmed, but that is pure speculation.
 

Continue to: Next Term...

 

 

Next Term

The next term began on Monday, October 4, 2021. With the considerable current activity in the Shadow Docket, there was not much of a summer break. The coming term looks extraordinary. The headline case is an abortion case from Mississippi, Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization.25 The legal question is the constitutionality of Mississippi law that prohibits most abortions after 15 weeks of gestation. The Texas abortion law will also be back before the Court. As we saw this term, big cases may produce very narrow results, but this case has the potential for being a notable abortion decision.

In a different case the Court will decide whether a state attorney general can step in to defend an abortion law when the state health secretary does not do so.26

The Court also has accepted 3 cases dealing with reimbursement for health services. One deals with whether or not the Department of Health and Human Services can set reimbursement rates without good survey data regarding costs,27 another involves the calculation of additional payments for hospitals that serve a “disproportionate number of low-income patients,”28 and the third whether state Medicaid programs can take funds from an injured beneficiary’s tort recovery to cover future Medicaid costs.29

In other cases, the Court will review a gun control law from New York. The Court’s earlier Second Amendment cases involved guns in the home used for self-defense, but this case raises the question of whether a state can practically preclude “concealed-carry licenses.”30 Many experts believe the Court will accept a case dealing with racial preferences in college admissions, perhaps the Harvard case in which the claim is discrimination against Asian Americans.31

The ACOG mifepristone case was interesting, in part because the federal district court issued a nationwide injunction against the Americans with Disabilities Act, enforcing its rules anywhere in the country. The effect of these orders is for a single district judge to create the “law of the land,” at least until that is reviewed—which can take months. The advantage of the nationwide injunction is that it avoids having to repeatedly litigate the same issues in multiple courts around the country. The downside is that plaintiffs can seek out a nonrepresentative judge or circuit and receive an injunction that would be granted by few other circuits. In addition, a nationwide injunction can apply to specific circumstances that are not before the court issuing the injunction. In the mifepristone case, for example, 10 states requested to intervene in the ACOG case. The court rejected the request, but the nationwide injunction applied to those states.1

Although federal judges have had the authority to issue nationwide injunctions for years, they are becoming much more common. One reason is the ease of forum shopping noted earlier—organizations can cherry-pick district courts and circuits sympathetic to their views. Both left- and right-leaning organizations have learned this lesson, so left-leaning groups are likely to file in specific districts in the Ninth Circuit, and right-leaning groups to districts in the Fifth Circuit.

If the current trend of increasing nationwide injunctions continues, either the rules for the federal courts or congressional action may be required to reduce some of the abuses by both sides of the political spectrum.

District court “nationwide injunctions”

The ACOG mifepristone case was interesting, in part because the federal district court issued a nationwide injunction against the Americans with Disabilities Act, enforcing its rules anywhere in the country. The effect of these orders is for a single district judge to create the “law of the land,” at least until that is reviewed—which can take months. The advantage of the nationwide injunction is that it avoids having to repeatedly litigate the same issues in multiple courts around the country. The downside is that plaintiffs can seek out a nonrepresentative judge or circuit and receive an injunction that would be granted by few other circuits. In addition, a nationwide injunction can apply to specific circumstances that are not before the court issuing the injunction. In the mifepristone case, for example, 10 states requested to intervene in the ACOG case. The court rejected the request, but the nationwide injunction applied to those states.1

Although federal judges have had the authority to issue nationwide injunctions for years, they are becoming much more common. One reason is the ease of forum shopping noted earlier—organizations can cherry-pick district courts and circuits sympathetic to their views. Both left- and right-leaning organizations have learned this lesson, so left-leaning groups are likely to file in specific districts in the Ninth Circuit, and right-leaning groups to districts in the Fifth Circuit.

If the current trend of increasing nationwide injunctions continues, either the rules for the federal courts or congressional action may be required to reduce some of the abuses by both sides of the political spectrum. Reference Am. Coll. of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 467 F. Supp. 3d 282, 284 (D. Md. 2020).

Reference

1. Am. Coll. of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 467 F. Supp. 3d 282, 284 (D. Md. 2020).

 

The “Shadow Docket”

The ACOG mifepristone decisions do not appear on the Supreme Court’s “Court Opinions” website.1 They appear in what has become known in recent years as “The Shadow Docket,” an informal term that includes many orders of the Court and statements of individual justices regarding some cases.2 There are hundreds of orders by the Court each Term, there is nothing particularly shadowy about any of these items—they are all publicly available on the Court’s website and later in paper format. It is, however, a little harder to find and much harder to sort through than the major opinions. In some cases, it is not possible to tell what the vote was, how each justice voted, and what the reasoning of the Court was. In a few cases it is difficult to know exactly what the Court was holding or otherwise leaves some confusion about what the law actually is.3

The part of the Shadow Docket that is most intriguing for commentators, and where the ACOG cases appear, is the “Opinions Relating to Orders.”4 These are a variety of opinions, some written by the Court and many by individual justices. It also includes the action of the Court in some cases in which there was not full briefing or oral argument. The statements by justices often are to dissent from the denial of cert of decisions of the Court. These opinions have become much more common over the years. In this past term, there were approximately 60 such opinions related to about 50 cases. In part, this relates to the number of pandemic cases that could not wait for a Court decision going through the extended ordinary process. Although the Shadow Docket has been of interest to academic observers and Court watchers for years, this year it has attracted the attention of Congress.5

References

1. Opinions of the Court. Supreme Court website. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/slipopinion/20#list. Accessed October 10, 2021.

2. Baude W. Foreword: the Supreme Court’s Shadow Docket, 9 N.Y.U. J.L. & Liberty 1 (2015).

3. Vladeck SI. The Solicitor General and the Shadow Docket, 133 Harvard Law Review. 123 (2019).

4. Opinions relating to orders. Supreme Court website. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/relatingtoorders/20#list. Accessed October 10, 2021.

5. The Supreme Court’s Shadow Docket: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Intellectual Property and the Internet of the H. Committee on the Judiciary, 117th Congress (2021).

 

 

 

The Supreme Court’s usual processes were disrupted this term. The COVID-19 pandemic required audio hearings rather than in-person, and it resulted in a number of emergency legal appeals. As the Court began its regular sessions on October 5, 2020, there were only 8 justices—Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg had passed away and Amy Coney Barrett had not yet been confirmed by the Senate. The Court decided many important cases this term, including dealing with the delivery of drugs to induce abortions, a Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) moratorium on housing evictions, yet another case on the Affordable Care Act, state laws concerning pharmacy benefit managers, and the Hologic and Minerva endometrial ablation systems patents. After considering these cases, we also will briefly look at other cases of general interest.

Abortion

Patient access to mifepristone

In May 2020, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) was the named plaintiff in a lawsuit against the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regarding the drugs mifepristone and misoprostol that are used to induce medical abortions.1 The case was filed by the American Civil Liberties Union on behalf of ACOG and others2,3 and raised the issue of patients’ access to these medications. The basic claim of the case was that during the pandemic, the FDA’s regulation of mifepristone was unconstitutional in that they imposed an undue burden on the decision of women to have an abortion.4 (Although misoprostol is a part of the medical abortion regimen, it is not subject to special regulation and was not part of the litigation.)

The FDA regulation of mifepristone, begun in 2000 but modified since then, includes 3 elements to assure safe use:

  • prescribers must have special training or certification
  • the drug can be dispensed to patients only in a hospital, clinic, or medical office under the supervision of a certified health care provider (known as the “in-person dispensing requirement” because retail pharmacy or mail distribution are prohibited)
  • the health care provider must review a “patient agreement form” with the patient and have the patient sign the consent form in the provider’s presence.5

The pandemic made fulfilling these requirements substantially more burdensome and difficult. The question was whether the FDA was constitutionally required to modify its regulations during a pandemic to take account of the undue burden of the regulation created by the pandemic. That is, the question was not whether the FDA could have or should have chosen to make the modification, but whether it was required to do so.

In July 2020, a federal district court in Maryland held that the FDA regulation was an unconstitutional burden on the abortion rights of women during the pandemic and issued a preliminary injunction to stop the FDA from enforcing the in-person dispensing and signature rules. The district judge applied the injunction to Maryland, but also made it a nationwide injunction. (The issue of district court nationwide injunctions is considered in, “District court ‘nationwide injunctions’”). 

The FDA asked the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals to stay the enforcement of the injunction, which the appeals court denied. The FDA then appealed to the Supreme Court, asking it to stay the injunction. In October 2020, the Court announced that it was holding the FDA’s request “in abeyance” to allow the district court to consider a motion by the FDA to dissolve or change the injunction. It gave the district court 40 days in which to act. That decision by the Court was in the “Shadow Docket” (see sidebar on page XX), so the exact vote of the Court in October is not clear, but 2 Justices (Alito and Thomas) dissented and would have stayed the injunction.6 Over the next 40 days, the district court did not withdraw its nationwide injunction.

Thus, on January 12, 2021, the case was again before the Supreme Court, which let the FDA’s regulations regarding mifepristone remain in place by lifting the district court’s injunction. Most of the justices supporting the stay did not write to explain their decision, although their dissent in the earlier cases may have served that purpose. (Maryland was permitting many kinds of activity that were more risky than visiting a clinic—indoor dining, with open hair salons, gyms, and casinos.)7 Chief Justice Roberts wrote a concurrence to indicate that, in his view, the issue was not whether the FDA’s regulations placed an undue burden on a right to an abortion generally, but that “My view is that courts owe significant deference” to the public health authorities (here meaning the FDA). Justices Sotomayor and Kagan dissented, saying that the issue was the undue burden on women, given the difficulties of the pandemic, particularly going to medical facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic.8

The injunction, sought by ACOG and others, was issued by the district court and was in effect for several months before it was dissolved by the Supreme Court. Following the change in presidential administrations, in April 2021 the FDA announced that it was going to “exercise enforcement discretion with respect to the in-person dispensing requirement…during the COVID-19 public health emergency.”9

Continue to: The Texas abortion case...

 

 

The Texas abortion case

The Court, on September 1, 2021, declined to block a Texas abortion statute from taking effect.10 This law precludes abortions after a fetal heartbeat is present at about 6 weeks of gestation. The Fifth Circuit declined to grant an injunction delaying implementation of the Texas law, and the Court did not reverse that decision.

Over the years, a variety of states have placed limitations on abortion, and those almost always have been enjoined by federal courts before they went into effect. However, the Texas statute, which undoubtedly is unconstitutional, was creatively constructed to avoid an early injunction.11 The statute does not allow state officials to enforce the new law, but rather it allows almost any private citizen to seek monetary damages from anyone performing an abortion or who “aids and abets” an abortion. Thus, it is difficult to tailor a lawsuit before this law is enforced. First, courts do not enjoin laws; they usually enjoin individuals from enforcing the law, and in this case it is difficult to know which individuals will be enforcing the laws and what their decisions might be. There also are some questions about the degree to which federal courts can enjoin state courts from deciding lawsuits under state law. For these procedural reasons, the majority of the Court found that those attacking the Texas law had not met their burden of showing that that they would win their case.

Even 3 of the dissenting justices said the defendants may be right that “existing doctrines preclude judicial intervention,” but that the consequences are such that the Court should delay the law until there is time for briefing and argument. The other 3 dissenting justices thought there would be ways of getting around the clever roadblock Texas had erected for the federal courts.

There has been some commentary that this case portends the abandonment of Roe v Wade and Casey,12 but that conclusion does not seem warranted by this case. The Court has accepted a Mississippi abortion law to be heard next term.13 In addition, the Texas statute is likely to be back in federal court once a private individual has filed a claim for money from an abortion provider (and likely even before that).

COVID-19 cases

The Supreme Court decided several cases related to COVID-19, including adjustments to election procedures, church services, and CDC eviction moratoria. As a general matter early in the pandemic, the Court deferred to government authorities, generally upholding government actions. Chief Justice Roberts emphasized the importance of the Court deferring to government officials in emergencies. As the pandemic progressed into 2021, however, the Court became less and less sympathetic to government actions that were not consistent, permitted by existing law, or reasonably necessary. For example, regulations of churches that were inconsistent with the regulation of similar organizations were struck down.14

Among the most interesting of the summer 2021 cases was the CDC eviction moratorium that essentially prohibited landlords nationwide from evicting tenants for nonpayment of rent. When the challenges to these CDC regulations first reached the Court, the moratorium was about to expire; in a 5-4 decision, the Court did not enjoin the CDC from continuing that policy. Justice Kavanaugh (the fifth vote) warned that “clear and specific congressional authorization…would be necessary to extend the moratorium past July 31.”15 Despite telling the Court that the moratorium would expire on July 31, just 3 days after the expiration and without any congressional authorization, the CDC reinstated what was practically the same moratorium.16 On August 26, the Court struck down the reinstated regulation, probably by a 6-3 margin. (Because this case arose in the “Shadow Docket,” the vote of some justices is not certain).17

Continue to: The Affordable Care Act...

 

 

The Affordable Care Act

The Affordable Care Act was challenged in the Court for the third time.18 In this term’s case, several states argued that when Congress essentially eliminated the penalty/tax for not purchasing insurance coverage, there was no longer a constitutional basis for the individual mandate. With that centerpiece gone, they claimed, the whole statute should be declared unconstitutional.

Along with many other specialty groups, ACOG joined an amicus curiae brief sponsored by the American Medical Association (AMA).19 An amicus brief is one not filed by the parties to the case, but by organizations or individuals who have information that may be of use to the Court in considering the case. Among other things, the filing of an amicus brief indicates the interest of the organization in the outcome of the case. In this case, the crux of the amicus was that even if the individual mandate currently is not constitutional, the Court should sever that provision and retain the rest of the ACA.

Despite some wild predictions about what the Court might do, it did not decide any substantive issue. Rather, it found that none of the parties to the case had “standing” to challenge the constitutionality of the ACA. Therefore, in effect, the Court dismissed the case without deciding the substantive legal issues.
 

Pharmacy Benefit Managers

The powerful Pharmacy Benefit Managers (PBMs) are a hidden part of the health care system; however, in recent years there has been increasing regulatory attention paid to them. Some states have begun regulating aspects of PBMs. In this term, the Court considered an Arkansas law that sought to protect local pharmacies from PBM pricing practices.20 The AMA filed an amicus brief in the case which made legal arguments, most of which had been made by the parties to the litigation.21

PBMs generally tell pharmacies how much they will reimburse the pharmacy for filling a prescription for a particular drug. In some instances, PBMs will set a reimbursement price that is lower than the wholesale price at which local pharmacies can purchase the drug. The Arkansas law prohibited PBMs in the state from reimbursing pharmacies for less than the wholesale cost the pharmacy paid for the drug.

The claim of the PBMs was that the Arkansas law violated the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA). In part, this act preempts state law that relates to fringe benefit plans. States have the authority to regulate insurance, but ERISA limits what they can do when the insurance relates to fringe benefits. The Court held that ERISA does not preempt the Arkansas law or similar state laws in other states. Because the state law was not preempted by the state law, the Arkansas regulation was upheld. The fact that this was a unanimous decision (8-0, because Justice Barrett was not on the Court when the case was heard) suggests that states may have leeway in additional regulations of PBMs, and it would not be surprising to see more of that state regulation in the future.

Continue to: Patent uncertainty...

 

 

Patent uncertainty

Csaba Truckai invented and patented the NovaSure System ablation device with a “moisture permeable” head. He sold his company and the related patents, which eventually were purchased by Hologic. Over time, Hologic added claims to the original patent. In the meantime, Truckai went on to invent another device, the Minerva Endometrial Ablation System (MEAS), which had a “moisture impermeable” head. (Note that the “Minerva Surgical, Inc.” involved in this case is not related to the company “Minerva Industries,” which some identified as a “patent troll.”)22

Hologic sued Minerva, claiming that Truckai’s second device (MEAS) infringed on its patent for the first device (NovaSure). Truckai’s defense was that the patent on NovaSure was invalid. Hologic felt that since Truckai had obtained that patent and then sold it, it was improper for him now to claim it was invalid. There is a doctrine for that: assignor estoppel—the person who sold (assigned) the patent is prevented from later claiming it was invalid. The question in this case was whether assignor estoppel is part of the patent law of the United States. It is not in the patent statutes, so it is a court-determined part of the law.

In a 5-4 decision this Term, the Court held that assignor estoppel is recognized, but that it is narrow.23 The Court identified several exceptions to assignor estoppel, notably for this case, including the situation in which the purchaser of the patent, after the purchase, returns to the Patent and Trademark Office to expand (amend) the patent’s claims. In that case, the seller could not be estopped by the amended terms of the patent. Minerva claimed that it was attacking the expanded patent that included changes made after it sold the patent. The Court, therefore, returned the case to the Federal Circuit to apply the principles it laid out about assignor estoppel.

Biotech and other fast-moving fields frequently have new technology building on slightly earlier technology. The current patent system often leaves uncertainty about who owns which part of a valid patent. This uncertainty is a drag on innovation, and the patent system is supposed to spur innovation. Assignor estoppel is likely to create additional complexity and uncertainty in some patents, which is regrettable.
 

Review of the Term

In addition to the other disruptions of the Term, during the first part of the Term, Amy Coney Barrett was not yet confirmed by the Senate, so there were only 8 justices until October 27. She did not participate in those cases that were heard before she joined the Court. The consensus is that the Court heard 67 cases: 57 were formally briefed and argued along with 8 summary reversals and 2 religious cases in the Shadow Docket. In my opinion, this undercounts both the number and the importance of the Shadow Docket cases, but the following data use the 67 case convention.24

The Court was unanimous in 43% of the cases, including some of the most divisive issues. That unanimity reflects very narrow decisions. There were (by conventional count) only eight 5-4 opinions (12%), an unusually low number. Justice Kavanaugh is viewed as the “median” justice. He was in the majority in 97% of all cases. Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Barrett were in the majority 91%, and Justice Gorsuch 90%. As for the other justices, they were in the majority (all cases) most of the time: Justice Alito, 83%; Justice Thomas, 81%; Justice Breyer, 76%; Justice Kagan, 75%; and Justice Sotomayor, 69%. In “divided cases” (when unanimous cases are removed), the percentages are: Justice Kavanaugh, 95%; Chief Justice Roberts and Justice Barrett, 84%; Justice Gorsuch, 82%; Justice Alito, 70%; Justice Thomas, 66%; Justice Breyer, 58%; Justice Kagan, 55%; and Justice Sotomayor, 45%.

When the term began, many Court watchers expected a relatively uninteresting term, dealing with many technical legal details. In fact, it turned out to be more interesting and important than expected, even with narrow holdings in important cases. Part of the secret of the term was that a lot of the real action was in the Shadow Docket. The end of the term is sometimes the moment when a justice announces a plan to retire. Many commentators expected Justice Breyer might announce—he has been under pressure to do so, to allow President Biden to nominate and a Democratic Senate to confirm a progressive justice. However, he did not do so. It is possible that he will announce his retirement to be effective when his successor is confirmed, but that is pure speculation.
 

Continue to: Next Term...

 

 

Next Term

The next term began on Monday, October 4, 2021. With the considerable current activity in the Shadow Docket, there was not much of a summer break. The coming term looks extraordinary. The headline case is an abortion case from Mississippi, Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization.25 The legal question is the constitutionality of Mississippi law that prohibits most abortions after 15 weeks of gestation. The Texas abortion law will also be back before the Court. As we saw this term, big cases may produce very narrow results, but this case has the potential for being a notable abortion decision.

In a different case the Court will decide whether a state attorney general can step in to defend an abortion law when the state health secretary does not do so.26

The Court also has accepted 3 cases dealing with reimbursement for health services. One deals with whether or not the Department of Health and Human Services can set reimbursement rates without good survey data regarding costs,27 another involves the calculation of additional payments for hospitals that serve a “disproportionate number of low-income patients,”28 and the third whether state Medicaid programs can take funds from an injured beneficiary’s tort recovery to cover future Medicaid costs.29

In other cases, the Court will review a gun control law from New York. The Court’s earlier Second Amendment cases involved guns in the home used for self-defense, but this case raises the question of whether a state can practically preclude “concealed-carry licenses.”30 Many experts believe the Court will accept a case dealing with racial preferences in college admissions, perhaps the Harvard case in which the claim is discrimination against Asian Americans.31

The ACOG mifepristone case was interesting, in part because the federal district court issued a nationwide injunction against the Americans with Disabilities Act, enforcing its rules anywhere in the country. The effect of these orders is for a single district judge to create the “law of the land,” at least until that is reviewed—which can take months. The advantage of the nationwide injunction is that it avoids having to repeatedly litigate the same issues in multiple courts around the country. The downside is that plaintiffs can seek out a nonrepresentative judge or circuit and receive an injunction that would be granted by few other circuits. In addition, a nationwide injunction can apply to specific circumstances that are not before the court issuing the injunction. In the mifepristone case, for example, 10 states requested to intervene in the ACOG case. The court rejected the request, but the nationwide injunction applied to those states.1

Although federal judges have had the authority to issue nationwide injunctions for years, they are becoming much more common. One reason is the ease of forum shopping noted earlier—organizations can cherry-pick district courts and circuits sympathetic to their views. Both left- and right-leaning organizations have learned this lesson, so left-leaning groups are likely to file in specific districts in the Ninth Circuit, and right-leaning groups to districts in the Fifth Circuit.

If the current trend of increasing nationwide injunctions continues, either the rules for the federal courts or congressional action may be required to reduce some of the abuses by both sides of the political spectrum.

District court “nationwide injunctions”

The ACOG mifepristone case was interesting, in part because the federal district court issued a nationwide injunction against the Americans with Disabilities Act, enforcing its rules anywhere in the country. The effect of these orders is for a single district judge to create the “law of the land,” at least until that is reviewed—which can take months. The advantage of the nationwide injunction is that it avoids having to repeatedly litigate the same issues in multiple courts around the country. The downside is that plaintiffs can seek out a nonrepresentative judge or circuit and receive an injunction that would be granted by few other circuits. In addition, a nationwide injunction can apply to specific circumstances that are not before the court issuing the injunction. In the mifepristone case, for example, 10 states requested to intervene in the ACOG case. The court rejected the request, but the nationwide injunction applied to those states.1

Although federal judges have had the authority to issue nationwide injunctions for years, they are becoming much more common. One reason is the ease of forum shopping noted earlier—organizations can cherry-pick district courts and circuits sympathetic to their views. Both left- and right-leaning organizations have learned this lesson, so left-leaning groups are likely to file in specific districts in the Ninth Circuit, and right-leaning groups to districts in the Fifth Circuit.

If the current trend of increasing nationwide injunctions continues, either the rules for the federal courts or congressional action may be required to reduce some of the abuses by both sides of the political spectrum. Reference Am. Coll. of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 467 F. Supp. 3d 282, 284 (D. Md. 2020).

Reference

1. Am. Coll. of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 467 F. Supp. 3d 282, 284 (D. Md. 2020).

 

The “Shadow Docket”

The ACOG mifepristone decisions do not appear on the Supreme Court’s “Court Opinions” website.1 They appear in what has become known in recent years as “The Shadow Docket,” an informal term that includes many orders of the Court and statements of individual justices regarding some cases.2 There are hundreds of orders by the Court each Term, there is nothing particularly shadowy about any of these items—they are all publicly available on the Court’s website and later in paper format. It is, however, a little harder to find and much harder to sort through than the major opinions. In some cases, it is not possible to tell what the vote was, how each justice voted, and what the reasoning of the Court was. In a few cases it is difficult to know exactly what the Court was holding or otherwise leaves some confusion about what the law actually is.3

The part of the Shadow Docket that is most intriguing for commentators, and where the ACOG cases appear, is the “Opinions Relating to Orders.”4 These are a variety of opinions, some written by the Court and many by individual justices. It also includes the action of the Court in some cases in which there was not full briefing or oral argument. The statements by justices often are to dissent from the denial of cert of decisions of the Court. These opinions have become much more common over the years. In this past term, there were approximately 60 such opinions related to about 50 cases. In part, this relates to the number of pandemic cases that could not wait for a Court decision going through the extended ordinary process. Although the Shadow Docket has been of interest to academic observers and Court watchers for years, this year it has attracted the attention of Congress.5

References

1. Opinions of the Court. Supreme Court website. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/slipopinion/20#list. Accessed October 10, 2021.

2. Baude W. Foreword: the Supreme Court’s Shadow Docket, 9 N.Y.U. J.L. & Liberty 1 (2015).

3. Vladeck SI. The Solicitor General and the Shadow Docket, 133 Harvard Law Review. 123 (2019).

4. Opinions relating to orders. Supreme Court website. https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/relatingtoorders/20#list. Accessed October 10, 2021.

5. The Supreme Court’s Shadow Docket: Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Courts, Intellectual Property and the Internet of the H. Committee on the Judiciary, 117th Congress (2021).

 

 

References
  1. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 472 F. Supp. 3d 183 (D. Md. 2020).
  2. Michael Kunzelman, Doctors Sue to Block FDA Abortion Pill Rule During Pandemic, (May 29, 2020).
  3. ACLU, American College Of Obstetricians And Gynecologists V. U.S. Food And Drug Administration, https://www.aclu.org/cases/american-college-obstetricians-and-gynecologists-v-us-food-and-drug-administration. Updated February 12, 2021. Accessed August 27, 2021.
  4. Whole Woman’s Health v Hellerstedt, 579 US ___ (2016), 136 S Ct 2292.
  5. 2016 Clinical Review at 39, 47, 49, Opp’n Mot. PI Ex. 19, ECF No. 62-11.
  6. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists v FDA (I), decided October 8, 2020.
  7. October 8, 2020, dissenting opinion by Justice Alito.
  8. January 12, 2021, dissenting opinion by Justice Sotomayor.
  9. Questions and answers on Mifeprex. U.S. Food and Drug Administration website. Published April 13, 2021. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/postmarket-drug-safety-information-patients-and-providers/questions-and-answers-mifeprex. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  10. Whole Woman’s Health v Jackson, decided September 1, 2021.
  11. Texas Senate Bill 8, relating to abortion, including abortions after detection of unborn child’s heartbeat; authorizing a private civil right of action. LegiScan website. https://legiscan.com/TX/text/SB8/id/2395961. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  12. Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v Casey, 505 U. S. 833 (1992); Roe v Wade, 410 U. S. 113 (1973).
  13. Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization, No. 19-1392.
  14. Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v Cuomo, decided November 25, 2020.
  15. Alabama Association of Realtors v Department of Health and Human Services, decided June 29, 2021.
  16. Temporary halt in residential evictions in communities with substantial or high levels of community transmission of COVID-19 to prevent the further spread of COVID-19. August 6, 2021. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/08/06/2021-16945/temporary-halt-in-residential-evictions-in-communities-with-substantial-or-high-transmission-of.
  17. Alabama Association of Realtors v Department of Health and Human Services, decided August 26, 2021.
  18. California v Texas, decided June 17, 2021.
  19. Brief of Amici Curiae American Medical Association, American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, Aerospace Medical Association, American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Cardiology, American College of Emergency Physicians, American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American College of Physicians, American College of Radiation Oncology, American College of Radiology, American Psychiatric Association, American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, American Society of Hematology, American Society of Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery, Endocrine Society, GLMA: Health Professionals Advancing LGBTQ Equality, Renal Physicians Association, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Interventional Radiology in Support of Petitioners, in California v. Texas. May 13, 2020. https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/19/19-840/143469/20200513150051995_19-840%20Amici%20Brief%20AMA.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  20. Rutledge v Pharmaceutical Care Management Association, decided December 10, 2020.
  21. Brief of the American Medical Association, The Arkansas Medical Society, and The Litigation Center of the American Medical Association and the State Medical Societies as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioner in Rutledge v Pharmaceutical Care Management Association. March 2, 2020. https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/18/18-540/134670/20200302163622018_Rutledge%20v.%20PCMA%20Amicus%20Brief%20of%20AMA%20et%20al.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  22. Apple quietly settles patent lawsuit, promptly gets hit with another one. TechCrunch website. Published July 30, 2010. https://techcrunch.com/2010/07/30/apple-minerva-emblaze/. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  23. Minerva Surgical, Inc. v Hologic, Inc., decided June 29, 2021.
  24. Stat pack. SCOTUS Blog website. Published July 6, 2021. https://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Final-Stat-Pack-7.6.21.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  25. Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization, No. 19-1392.
  26. Cameron v. EMW Women’s Surgical Center, https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/cameron-v-emw-womens-surgical-center-p-s-c/. Accessed August 28, 2021.
  27. American Hospital Association v Becerra, No. 20-1114.
  28. Becerra v Empire Health Foundation, No. 20-1312.
  29. Gallardo v Marstiller, No. 20-1263.
  30. New York State Rifle & Pistol Association Inc. v Corlett, No. 20-843.
  31. Students for Fair Admissions v President & Fellows of Harvard College, No. 20-1199.
References
  1. American College of Obstetricians & Gynecologists v. United States FDA, 472 F. Supp. 3d 183 (D. Md. 2020).
  2. Michael Kunzelman, Doctors Sue to Block FDA Abortion Pill Rule During Pandemic, (May 29, 2020).
  3. ACLU, American College Of Obstetricians And Gynecologists V. U.S. Food And Drug Administration, https://www.aclu.org/cases/american-college-obstetricians-and-gynecologists-v-us-food-and-drug-administration. Updated February 12, 2021. Accessed August 27, 2021.
  4. Whole Woman’s Health v Hellerstedt, 579 US ___ (2016), 136 S Ct 2292.
  5. 2016 Clinical Review at 39, 47, 49, Opp’n Mot. PI Ex. 19, ECF No. 62-11.
  6. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists v FDA (I), decided October 8, 2020.
  7. October 8, 2020, dissenting opinion by Justice Alito.
  8. January 12, 2021, dissenting opinion by Justice Sotomayor.
  9. Questions and answers on Mifeprex. U.S. Food and Drug Administration website. Published April 13, 2021. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/postmarket-drug-safety-information-patients-and-providers/questions-and-answers-mifeprex. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  10. Whole Woman’s Health v Jackson, decided September 1, 2021.
  11. Texas Senate Bill 8, relating to abortion, including abortions after detection of unborn child’s heartbeat; authorizing a private civil right of action. LegiScan website. https://legiscan.com/TX/text/SB8/id/2395961. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  12. Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v Casey, 505 U. S. 833 (1992); Roe v Wade, 410 U. S. 113 (1973).
  13. Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization, No. 19-1392.
  14. Roman Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn v Cuomo, decided November 25, 2020.
  15. Alabama Association of Realtors v Department of Health and Human Services, decided June 29, 2021.
  16. Temporary halt in residential evictions in communities with substantial or high levels of community transmission of COVID-19 to prevent the further spread of COVID-19. August 6, 2021. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2021/08/06/2021-16945/temporary-halt-in-residential-evictions-in-communities-with-substantial-or-high-transmission-of.
  17. Alabama Association of Realtors v Department of Health and Human Services, decided August 26, 2021.
  18. California v Texas, decided June 17, 2021.
  19. Brief of Amici Curiae American Medical Association, American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, Aerospace Medical Association, American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Pediatrics, American College of Cardiology, American College of Emergency Physicians, American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, American College of Physicians, American College of Radiation Oncology, American College of Radiology, American Psychiatric Association, American Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, American Society of Hematology, American Society of Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery, Endocrine Society, GLMA: Health Professionals Advancing LGBTQ Equality, Renal Physicians Association, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Interventional Radiology in Support of Petitioners, in California v. Texas. May 13, 2020. https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/19/19-840/143469/20200513150051995_19-840%20Amici%20Brief%20AMA.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  20. Rutledge v Pharmaceutical Care Management Association, decided December 10, 2020.
  21. Brief of the American Medical Association, The Arkansas Medical Society, and The Litigation Center of the American Medical Association and the State Medical Societies as Amici Curiae in Support of Petitioner in Rutledge v Pharmaceutical Care Management Association. March 2, 2020. https://www.supremecourt.gov/DocketPDF/18/18-540/134670/20200302163622018_Rutledge%20v.%20PCMA%20Amicus%20Brief%20of%20AMA%20et%20al.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  22. Apple quietly settles patent lawsuit, promptly gets hit with another one. TechCrunch website. Published July 30, 2010. https://techcrunch.com/2010/07/30/apple-minerva-emblaze/. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  23. Minerva Surgical, Inc. v Hologic, Inc., decided June 29, 2021.
  24. Stat pack. SCOTUS Blog website. Published July 6, 2021. https://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Final-Stat-Pack-7.6.21.pdf. Accessed October 9, 2021.
  25. Dobbs v Jackson Women’s Health Organization, No. 19-1392.
  26. Cameron v. EMW Women’s Surgical Center, https://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/cameron-v-emw-womens-surgical-center-p-s-c/. Accessed August 28, 2021.
  27. American Hospital Association v Becerra, No. 20-1114.
  28. Becerra v Empire Health Foundation, No. 20-1312.
  29. Gallardo v Marstiller, No. 20-1263.
  30. New York State Rifle & Pistol Association Inc. v Corlett, No. 20-843.
  31. Students for Fair Admissions v President & Fellows of Harvard College, No. 20-1199.
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