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Since the reversal of the Medicare exclusion in 2014, the rates of gender-affirming surgery have increased markedly in the United States.1 Gender-affirming mastectomy, otherwise known as “top surgery,” is one of the more commonly performed procedures; with 97% of patients having either undergone or expressed desire for the surgery.2 The goals of this procedure are to remove all visible breast tissue and reconstruct the chest wall so it is more masculine in appearance. For transmasculine and nonbinary patients, this procedure is associated with significant improvements in mental health and quality of life.3,4 While the mastectomy procedure is often performed by plastic surgeons, patients will see an ob.gyn. in the preoperative or postoperative period. Ob.gyns. should have a general understanding of the procedure, but most importantly know how to screen for breast cancer in patients who have undergone a gender-affirming mastectomy.
Providers will likely encounter transmasculine or nonbinary patients during annual screening examinations or for a preoperative exam. If a patient is seeking a preoperative risk assessment prior to undergoing a gender-affirming mastectomy, assessing a patient’s risk status for breast cancer is paramount. While testosterone therapy is no longer a prerequisite for gender-affirming mastectomies, documenting hormone use, age at initiation, and dosage is important.5 The overall effects of testosterone on breast tissue are inconsistent. However, studies have demonstrated that patients taking testosterone are not at an increased risk of breast cancer secondary to testosterone use.5-7 Patients should be asked about a personal of family history of breast cancer, breast surgery, history of prior breast biopsies, parity, age at menarche, smoking status, and breastfeeding history if applicable. Patients with high-risk mutations or a strong family history of breast cancer should be referred to genetic counselors, surgical oncologists, and possibly undergo genetic testing.8 Before an examination, providers should counsel patients about the nature of the examination and use gender-neutral language such as “chest” to avoid exacerbating gender dysphoria.
It is important to educate transmasculine patients about their risk for the development of breast cancer after mastectomy. Larger-scale, population-based studies of breast cancer in the transgender population have reported an incidence of 5.9 per 100,000 patients-years and an overall incidence comparable to cisgender men in age-standardized national samples.5-7 Unfortunately, data on the rates of breast cancer in transmasculine patients after gender-affirming mastectomy are limited, which makes defining postoperative guidelines challenging. Additionally, the amount of residual breast tissue remaining varies based on the surgeon and technique.
Several techniques are described for mastectomy procedures with differences that can affect the amount of residual breast tissue. The most common type of gender-affirming mastectomy is the double incision. With this procedure, the nipple-areolar complex is reduced in size, removed, and thinned to improve graft take. Dissection is then carried to the level of the breast capsule and the breast tissue and axillary tail are removed en bloc.5 During the dissection, the subcutaneous fat is left on the skin flap to provide appropriate contour and to avoid creating a concave-appearing chest wall. Prior to closure, the superior and inferior flaps are inspected for any visible residual breast tissue, which is removed if needed. In a circumareolar mastectomy, the nipple-areolar complex is also reduced but is preserved on a 1- to 1.5-cm-thick pedicle to maintain perfusion.5 The mastectomy is performed through an inferior periareolar incision and all visible breast tissue and the axillary tail are removed. Breast tissue specimens are sent for pathologic evaluation at the end of the procedure.
Following gender-affirming mastectomy, there is limited evidence to guide screening. During the patient visit, the provider should obtain a thorough history regarding mastectomy type, and if unknown, attempt to acquire the operative report detailing the procedure. For low-risk patients who undergo a subcutaneous mastectomy such as the double incision or circumareolar technique, screening mammography is not indicated nor is it technically feasible.9 For patients with a high-risk genetic mutation or a strong family history of breast cancer, monitoring with alternative modalities such as breast ultrasound or breast MRI may be beneficial, although there is no evidence to currently support this suggestion. Given the variety of surgical techniques of breast tissue removal, it is difficult to develop strong evidence-based guidelines. Annual chest wall examinations have been suggested as a screening modality; however, the clinical utility of clinical breast and chest exams has been debated and is no longer recommended as a screening method in cisgender patients.9 Clinicians can promote chest self-awareness and discuss the possibility of breast cancer in postmastectomy patients at annual examination visits. As research continues to resolve some of these unknowns, it is important that patients are informed of these areas of ambiguity and updated regarding any changes in screening recommendations.10
Dr. Brandt is an ob.gyn. and fellowship-trained gender affirming surgeon in West Reading, Pa.
References
1. American Society of Plastic Surgeons. 2018 plastic surgery statistics report. https://www.plasticsurgery.org/documents/News/Statistics/2018/plastic-surgery-statistics-full-report-2018.pdf. Accessed Aug. 20, 2021.
2. James SE et al. The report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender survey. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Transgender Equality, 2016.
3. Agarwal CA et al. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2018;71:651-7.
4. Poudrier G et al. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2018;80:679-83.
5. Salibian AA et al. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2020;147:213e-21e.
6. Gooren LJ et al. J Sex Med. 2013;10:3129-34.
7. Brown GR and Jones KT. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2015;149:191-8.
8. Deutsch MF et al. Semin Reprod Med. 2017;35:434-41.
9. Phillips J et al. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2014;202:1149-59.
10. Smith RA et al. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68:297-316.
Since the reversal of the Medicare exclusion in 2014, the rates of gender-affirming surgery have increased markedly in the United States.1 Gender-affirming mastectomy, otherwise known as “top surgery,” is one of the more commonly performed procedures; with 97% of patients having either undergone or expressed desire for the surgery.2 The goals of this procedure are to remove all visible breast tissue and reconstruct the chest wall so it is more masculine in appearance. For transmasculine and nonbinary patients, this procedure is associated with significant improvements in mental health and quality of life.3,4 While the mastectomy procedure is often performed by plastic surgeons, patients will see an ob.gyn. in the preoperative or postoperative period. Ob.gyns. should have a general understanding of the procedure, but most importantly know how to screen for breast cancer in patients who have undergone a gender-affirming mastectomy.
Providers will likely encounter transmasculine or nonbinary patients during annual screening examinations or for a preoperative exam. If a patient is seeking a preoperative risk assessment prior to undergoing a gender-affirming mastectomy, assessing a patient’s risk status for breast cancer is paramount. While testosterone therapy is no longer a prerequisite for gender-affirming mastectomies, documenting hormone use, age at initiation, and dosage is important.5 The overall effects of testosterone on breast tissue are inconsistent. However, studies have demonstrated that patients taking testosterone are not at an increased risk of breast cancer secondary to testosterone use.5-7 Patients should be asked about a personal of family history of breast cancer, breast surgery, history of prior breast biopsies, parity, age at menarche, smoking status, and breastfeeding history if applicable. Patients with high-risk mutations or a strong family history of breast cancer should be referred to genetic counselors, surgical oncologists, and possibly undergo genetic testing.8 Before an examination, providers should counsel patients about the nature of the examination and use gender-neutral language such as “chest” to avoid exacerbating gender dysphoria.
It is important to educate transmasculine patients about their risk for the development of breast cancer after mastectomy. Larger-scale, population-based studies of breast cancer in the transgender population have reported an incidence of 5.9 per 100,000 patients-years and an overall incidence comparable to cisgender men in age-standardized national samples.5-7 Unfortunately, data on the rates of breast cancer in transmasculine patients after gender-affirming mastectomy are limited, which makes defining postoperative guidelines challenging. Additionally, the amount of residual breast tissue remaining varies based on the surgeon and technique.
Several techniques are described for mastectomy procedures with differences that can affect the amount of residual breast tissue. The most common type of gender-affirming mastectomy is the double incision. With this procedure, the nipple-areolar complex is reduced in size, removed, and thinned to improve graft take. Dissection is then carried to the level of the breast capsule and the breast tissue and axillary tail are removed en bloc.5 During the dissection, the subcutaneous fat is left on the skin flap to provide appropriate contour and to avoid creating a concave-appearing chest wall. Prior to closure, the superior and inferior flaps are inspected for any visible residual breast tissue, which is removed if needed. In a circumareolar mastectomy, the nipple-areolar complex is also reduced but is preserved on a 1- to 1.5-cm-thick pedicle to maintain perfusion.5 The mastectomy is performed through an inferior periareolar incision and all visible breast tissue and the axillary tail are removed. Breast tissue specimens are sent for pathologic evaluation at the end of the procedure.
Following gender-affirming mastectomy, there is limited evidence to guide screening. During the patient visit, the provider should obtain a thorough history regarding mastectomy type, and if unknown, attempt to acquire the operative report detailing the procedure. For low-risk patients who undergo a subcutaneous mastectomy such as the double incision or circumareolar technique, screening mammography is not indicated nor is it technically feasible.9 For patients with a high-risk genetic mutation or a strong family history of breast cancer, monitoring with alternative modalities such as breast ultrasound or breast MRI may be beneficial, although there is no evidence to currently support this suggestion. Given the variety of surgical techniques of breast tissue removal, it is difficult to develop strong evidence-based guidelines. Annual chest wall examinations have been suggested as a screening modality; however, the clinical utility of clinical breast and chest exams has been debated and is no longer recommended as a screening method in cisgender patients.9 Clinicians can promote chest self-awareness and discuss the possibility of breast cancer in postmastectomy patients at annual examination visits. As research continues to resolve some of these unknowns, it is important that patients are informed of these areas of ambiguity and updated regarding any changes in screening recommendations.10
Dr. Brandt is an ob.gyn. and fellowship-trained gender affirming surgeon in West Reading, Pa.
References
1. American Society of Plastic Surgeons. 2018 plastic surgery statistics report. https://www.plasticsurgery.org/documents/News/Statistics/2018/plastic-surgery-statistics-full-report-2018.pdf. Accessed Aug. 20, 2021.
2. James SE et al. The report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender survey. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Transgender Equality, 2016.
3. Agarwal CA et al. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2018;71:651-7.
4. Poudrier G et al. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2018;80:679-83.
5. Salibian AA et al. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2020;147:213e-21e.
6. Gooren LJ et al. J Sex Med. 2013;10:3129-34.
7. Brown GR and Jones KT. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2015;149:191-8.
8. Deutsch MF et al. Semin Reprod Med. 2017;35:434-41.
9. Phillips J et al. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2014;202:1149-59.
10. Smith RA et al. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68:297-316.
Since the reversal of the Medicare exclusion in 2014, the rates of gender-affirming surgery have increased markedly in the United States.1 Gender-affirming mastectomy, otherwise known as “top surgery,” is one of the more commonly performed procedures; with 97% of patients having either undergone or expressed desire for the surgery.2 The goals of this procedure are to remove all visible breast tissue and reconstruct the chest wall so it is more masculine in appearance. For transmasculine and nonbinary patients, this procedure is associated with significant improvements in mental health and quality of life.3,4 While the mastectomy procedure is often performed by plastic surgeons, patients will see an ob.gyn. in the preoperative or postoperative period. Ob.gyns. should have a general understanding of the procedure, but most importantly know how to screen for breast cancer in patients who have undergone a gender-affirming mastectomy.
Providers will likely encounter transmasculine or nonbinary patients during annual screening examinations or for a preoperative exam. If a patient is seeking a preoperative risk assessment prior to undergoing a gender-affirming mastectomy, assessing a patient’s risk status for breast cancer is paramount. While testosterone therapy is no longer a prerequisite for gender-affirming mastectomies, documenting hormone use, age at initiation, and dosage is important.5 The overall effects of testosterone on breast tissue are inconsistent. However, studies have demonstrated that patients taking testosterone are not at an increased risk of breast cancer secondary to testosterone use.5-7 Patients should be asked about a personal of family history of breast cancer, breast surgery, history of prior breast biopsies, parity, age at menarche, smoking status, and breastfeeding history if applicable. Patients with high-risk mutations or a strong family history of breast cancer should be referred to genetic counselors, surgical oncologists, and possibly undergo genetic testing.8 Before an examination, providers should counsel patients about the nature of the examination and use gender-neutral language such as “chest” to avoid exacerbating gender dysphoria.
It is important to educate transmasculine patients about their risk for the development of breast cancer after mastectomy. Larger-scale, population-based studies of breast cancer in the transgender population have reported an incidence of 5.9 per 100,000 patients-years and an overall incidence comparable to cisgender men in age-standardized national samples.5-7 Unfortunately, data on the rates of breast cancer in transmasculine patients after gender-affirming mastectomy are limited, which makes defining postoperative guidelines challenging. Additionally, the amount of residual breast tissue remaining varies based on the surgeon and technique.
Several techniques are described for mastectomy procedures with differences that can affect the amount of residual breast tissue. The most common type of gender-affirming mastectomy is the double incision. With this procedure, the nipple-areolar complex is reduced in size, removed, and thinned to improve graft take. Dissection is then carried to the level of the breast capsule and the breast tissue and axillary tail are removed en bloc.5 During the dissection, the subcutaneous fat is left on the skin flap to provide appropriate contour and to avoid creating a concave-appearing chest wall. Prior to closure, the superior and inferior flaps are inspected for any visible residual breast tissue, which is removed if needed. In a circumareolar mastectomy, the nipple-areolar complex is also reduced but is preserved on a 1- to 1.5-cm-thick pedicle to maintain perfusion.5 The mastectomy is performed through an inferior periareolar incision and all visible breast tissue and the axillary tail are removed. Breast tissue specimens are sent for pathologic evaluation at the end of the procedure.
Following gender-affirming mastectomy, there is limited evidence to guide screening. During the patient visit, the provider should obtain a thorough history regarding mastectomy type, and if unknown, attempt to acquire the operative report detailing the procedure. For low-risk patients who undergo a subcutaneous mastectomy such as the double incision or circumareolar technique, screening mammography is not indicated nor is it technically feasible.9 For patients with a high-risk genetic mutation or a strong family history of breast cancer, monitoring with alternative modalities such as breast ultrasound or breast MRI may be beneficial, although there is no evidence to currently support this suggestion. Given the variety of surgical techniques of breast tissue removal, it is difficult to develop strong evidence-based guidelines. Annual chest wall examinations have been suggested as a screening modality; however, the clinical utility of clinical breast and chest exams has been debated and is no longer recommended as a screening method in cisgender patients.9 Clinicians can promote chest self-awareness and discuss the possibility of breast cancer in postmastectomy patients at annual examination visits. As research continues to resolve some of these unknowns, it is important that patients are informed of these areas of ambiguity and updated regarding any changes in screening recommendations.10
Dr. Brandt is an ob.gyn. and fellowship-trained gender affirming surgeon in West Reading, Pa.
References
1. American Society of Plastic Surgeons. 2018 plastic surgery statistics report. https://www.plasticsurgery.org/documents/News/Statistics/2018/plastic-surgery-statistics-full-report-2018.pdf. Accessed Aug. 20, 2021.
2. James SE et al. The report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender survey. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Transgender Equality, 2016.
3. Agarwal CA et al. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2018;71:651-7.
4. Poudrier G et al. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2018;80:679-83.
5. Salibian AA et al. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2020;147:213e-21e.
6. Gooren LJ et al. J Sex Med. 2013;10:3129-34.
7. Brown GR and Jones KT. Breast Cancer Res Treat. 2015;149:191-8.
8. Deutsch MF et al. Semin Reprod Med. 2017;35:434-41.
9. Phillips J et al. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2014;202:1149-59.
10. Smith RA et al. CA Cancer J Clin. 2018;68:297-316.