How Effective Is Group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy to Treat PTSD?

Anxiety is a necessary and natural reaction to trauma, but, sometimes, anxiety symptoms become excessive and problematic, as experienced with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Some patients who struggle with PTSD endure a relentless apprehension so intense that it keeps them from participating in everyday activities, such as attending work and partaking in social activities. Associated anxiety symptoms severely impair everyday function and include increased heart rate, sweating, intrusive images, poor attention, fear, or insomnia. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms often lead to occupational dysfunction, relationship difficulty, and numerous other functional impairments.

Approximately 300,000 veterans meet the criteria for PTSD related to ongoing or recent wars.¹ The veteran does not bear the personal and functional burden alone; however, the financial load is felt throughout society. One recent study suggests that for veterans diagnosed with PTSD, the first 2 years after deployment cost society an estimated $7,000 per individial.² Current research suggests that this potentially debilitating disorder occurs in about 14% of Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom combat troops, whereas the similar U.S. demographic population experiences PTSD at a rate of about 7%.^1,3 The ongoing military trauma exposures are compelling the mental health community to establish efficient and effective treatment options.^4,5

Several treatment strategies exist to reduce PTSD symptoms, but health care professionals must seek a balance between therapeutic benefit and cost. The treatment of PTSD is diverse and variable; however, in the most recent Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG) for PTSD, the VA and DoD specifically endorse some psychotherapeutic interventions while dissuading the use of others.⁶ Of note, the VA and DoD CPG strongly encourages Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) and similar cognitive therapies aimed at guiding patients through the process of consciously understanding the relationship between thoughts and feelings and then modifying thoughts to appropriately manage stressors.⁶ Meanwhile, group psychotherapy has been determined to be “somewhat helpful.”⁶ Even though cognitive- and group-based therapies have long been established as efficacious for numerous psychological disorders (depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, eating disorders, etc), neither the American Group Psychotherapy Association nor the VA and DoD CPG directly endorse the use of group cognitive behavioral therapy (GCBT) for the treatment of PTSD.^6,7 However, both VA and DoD mental health providers commonly practice CBT and various group psychotherapies for the treatment of PTSD.

Despite the widespread use of CBT, there is a gap in the clinical understanding of the evidence supporting GCBT for PTSD. The goal of this synthesis was to understand the efficacy of treating PTSD symptoms with group psychotherapy. To begin this investigation, the following PICO (population, intervention, comparison, outcome) question was asked: In adults diagnosed with PTSD, how effective is group cognitive behavioral therapy in reducing PTSD-related symptoms?

Methods

Research articles addressing the use of GCBT in PTSD were obtained via database searches that took place during October 2012 (Table). Searched databases included the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Randomized Controlled Trials, Psychological Information (PsycINFO), and Public Medicine (PubMed).

The PubMed database was searched using the following MeSH (medical subject heading) terms: “psychotherapy, group” and “stress disorders, post-traumatic” and “cognitive therapy.” Limitations were set to include only patients aged ≥ 18 years, results in English, those involving human subjects, and articles published within the past 5 years. A manual search of references was also conducted, and relevant articles were retained.

Articles that addressed primary substance abuse, other DSM Axis I disorders, intimate partner violence, or family issues were excluded from the evidence sample due to concerns of an alternate treatment focus. Articles with a focus on telehealth or alternative medicine were considered confounding to the scope of this review were also excluded. It was also noted that the term CBT is used collectively for an umbrella of treatments; however, treatments that focused on elements other than the components of CBT being delivered in a group were not included. To prevent duplication of the results, research from an inclusive review was not considered individually.

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE

Six works fulfilled the PICO criteria and were of sufficient quality to be synthesized. Of the 6 articles retained for synthesis, 2 were high-level reviews. Both reviews supported the use of GCBT for PTSD treatment. Barrera and colleagues reported an overall large effect size regardless of the presence of exposure in-group among the 12 treatment conditions and 651 study participants.⁸ These researchers also reported that in-group exposure did not further traumatize other group members.

Similarly, although a notably older and smaller review, Bisson and Andrew reported a significant standard mean deviation between 4 GCBT treatment and wait list controls. These reviewers did not find a significant difference between trauma- and nontrauma-focused treatment groups. The reviews also noted that individual psychotherapy and/or pharmacotherapy was most often continued throughout the reviewed studies.^8,9

The 4 other studies contribute substantively to this synthesis but arguably represent lower evidence quality. A large longitudinal study of 496 Australian veterans reported a large effect size that was sustained 9 months after treatment began.¹⁰ These researchers used an intensive outpatient program that included medication and other treatment modalities as the basis for GCBT delivery. They reported that the majority of the patients revealed improvement in PTSD symptoms.

Another study sampled a similar group of 10 combat veterans but focused particular attention on sleep-related PTSD symptoms of insomnia, nightmares, and sleep quality.¹¹ Although these researchers were unable to report a significant difference in overall PTSD symptoms for the 8 subjects who completed the protocol, they did find a large effect size on insomnia severity and a medium effect size on sleep quality. Regular treatment, including medication, continued throughout this study.

Other researchers reported a medium effect size on PTSD symptoms while using GCBT in a heterogeneous group with various anxiety disorders, including obsessive compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, panic disorders, and PTSD.¹² Although reporting similar results as all other included studies, this study has some significant limitations, including a 26% dropout rate among the 152 participants. The final study included for synthesis reported a remarkable 67% elimination of the PTSD diagnosis among 6 motor vehicle accident survivors in the small, uncontrolled study.¹³ Concomitant treatments, including medications, were not reported in detail for these 4 studies except as mentioned.

As a whole, the 6 studies revealed some appreciable commonalities. Time since diagnosis did not seem to influence the results. Attrition was consistently found to be similar to other PTSD treatments. The reported session topics were loosely based on common CBT tenets (ie, education, challenging cognitions, and relaxation techniques) and were typically similar among treatment groups, including the use of homework.

DISCUSSION

As the diagnosis of PTSD increases to unfamiliar levels, GCBT has the potential to be helpful to clinicians and patients seeking alternatives to their current treatments.^1,4,14 The reported results imply that GCBT can be useful in PTSD symptom reduction. This could be particularly useful to VA and military providers or rural providers operating with limited resources.

Treatment protocols are not well established and should be approached with care prior to the establishment of CBT treatment groups for those diagnosed with PTSD. Session overviews and descriptions, such as those mentioned in Thompson and colleagues, could provide a reference point for future use.¹³

Also worth considering, CBT can be an ambiguous term requiring deliberate definition within treatment protocols. As noted in the VA and DoD CPG, exposure- and trauma-focused treatment designs can be efficacious, but these elements do not seem to be required within the GCBT treatment setting.

The current research also suggests GCBT efficacy regardless of the index trauma. This does not suggest that heterogeneous groups were frequently studied nor can conclusions be drawn regarding heterogeneous treatment groups. Elements such as group size and session length are inconsistently reported and require specific consideration as well. There is a distinct lack of research directly comparing individual CBT with GCBT directly, which prohibits meaningful conclusions regarding PTSD symptom reduction. This research gap may well have influenced the recommendations within the VA and DoD CPG. Although some higher quality studies exist, many of the published reports on GCBT have noteworthy design flaw, such as inadequate controls and statistical analysis.

LIMITATIONS

There are some limitations to this literature synthesis. Although the search was limited to the past 5 years, the inclusion of reviews accounts for older evidence. As alluded to earlier, the lack of a standardized GCBT treatment protocol challenges results comparisons as well. The consequent treatment variations make direct interstudy comparison and synthesis difficult. Similarly, outcome measures varied between studies. Also, group psychotherapy is well established and accepted. Therefore, much of the supporting research was accomplished outside the parameters of this literature search. This empirical view of group psychotherapy among mental health providers may also contribute to the lack of available research.

It is also worth noting that studies finding neutral or negative results are often unpublished. This publication bias could account for the lack of available evidence. The research reports do not consistently report therapist qualifications; however, board certificates in group psychotherapy and CBT are undeniably variables available for debate. The inclusion of uncontrolled trials limits these findings as well. Although the above limitations are not exhaustive, they do provide necessary caveats to future generalizations.

FUTURE IMPLICATIONS

Perhaps the most important information to gain from future research is that of treatment outcomes. Studies that include a detailed outcome evaluation could reveal patient satisfaction, efficacy, and financial considerations. In the presence of adequate supportive data, GCBT could contribute outcome data regarding trauma survivor symptom normalization, peer support formation, access to care, treatment efficiency, and health care resources utilization. As noted in Barrera and colleagues, future analysis will require a greater volume of trials with an overall increase in methodological rigor.⁸

Current research has demonstrated a solid base from which to spawn specific treatment protocols. The available research is investigational in terms of treatment procedures. Replication of these studies could dictate treatment protocol and contribute substantively to future VA and DoD CPG updates. Future researchers should consider the use of a standard PTSD symptom assessment tool to make interstudy comparisons more meaningful. The length of treatment and exposure elements should be targeted specifically in future research as these components currently vary the most.

The military represents an obvious avenue for future research due to increased PTSD diagnosis in recent years. Although the etiology of the increase in PTSD is unclear and most likely multifactorial (decreased resilience, increased awareness, increased pursuit of secondary gains, etc), the need for treatment options is apparent.¹ Group cohesion has been shown to be a core component of successful group psychotherapy, so military members who are accustomed to unit cohesion might represent a uniquely suitable population for this modality.¹⁵ Interestingly and for reasons not currently understood, veterans do not see effects of therapy as large as their civilian counterparts.⁸ This underscores the need for further evaluation of military-specific outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the available evidence is not robust, results do support the careful use of GCBT as an effective treatment for PTSD symptom reduction.⁸ Group psychotherapy has been generally regarded as an efficacious and cost-effective method to achieve similar outcomes to individual therapy. Increasing PTSD prevalence compels mental health care providers to explore all available treatment options. The potential for GCBT as an option is exciting, especially for mental health providers and those with limited resources. Rising health care standards and the current national fiscal situation is dictating a reevaluation of treatment options; so perhaps all health care providers will soon consider the use of GCBT.

As with any group assignment, the clinician should carefully consider the individual’s suitability and desire for group participation.¹⁶ With GCBT, providers could facilitate the relief of relentless apprehension and functional impairment for several patients simultaneously. Although there are many details left to explore regarding the use of GCBT for PTSD, the therapy’s foundation for use as a PTSD treatment is apparent.

Author disclosures
The author reports no actual or potential conflicts of interest with regard to this article.

Disclaimer
The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of Federal Practitioner, Frontline Medical Communications Inc., the U.S. Government, or any of its agencies. This article may discuss unlabeled or investigational use of certain drugs. Please review the complete prescribing information for specific drugs or drug combinations—including indications, contraindications, warnings, and adverse effects—before administering pharmacologic therapy to patients.

Anxiety is a necessary and natural reaction to trauma, but, sometimes, anxiety symptoms become excessive and problematic, as experienced with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Some patients who struggle with PTSD endure a relentless apprehension so intense that it keeps them from participating in everyday activities, such as attending work and partaking in social activities. Associated anxiety symptoms severely impair everyday function and include increased heart rate, sweating, intrusive images, poor attention, fear, or insomnia. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms often lead to occupational dysfunction, relationship difficulty, and numerous other functional impairments.

Approximately 300,000 veterans meet the criteria for PTSD related to ongoing or recent wars.¹ The veteran does not bear the personal and functional burden alone; however, the financial load is felt throughout society. One recent study suggests that for veterans diagnosed with PTSD, the first 2 years after deployment cost society an estimated $7,000 per individial.² Current research suggests that this potentially debilitating disorder occurs in about 14% of Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom combat troops, whereas the similar U.S. demographic population experiences PTSD at a rate of about 7%.^1,3 The ongoing military trauma exposures are compelling the mental health community to establish efficient and effective treatment options.^4,5

Several treatment strategies exist to reduce PTSD symptoms, but health care professionals must seek a balance between therapeutic benefit and cost. The treatment of PTSD is diverse and variable; however, in the most recent Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG) for PTSD, the VA and DoD specifically endorse some psychotherapeutic interventions while dissuading the use of others.⁶ Of note, the VA and DoD CPG strongly encourages Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) and similar cognitive therapies aimed at guiding patients through the process of consciously understanding the relationship between thoughts and feelings and then modifying thoughts to appropriately manage stressors.⁶ Meanwhile, group psychotherapy has been determined to be “somewhat helpful.”⁶ Even though cognitive- and group-based therapies have long been established as efficacious for numerous psychological disorders (depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, eating disorders, etc), neither the American Group Psychotherapy Association nor the VA and DoD CPG directly endorse the use of group cognitive behavioral therapy (GCBT) for the treatment of PTSD.^6,7 However, both VA and DoD mental health providers commonly practice CBT and various group psychotherapies for the treatment of PTSD.

Despite the widespread use of CBT, there is a gap in the clinical understanding of the evidence supporting GCBT for PTSD. The goal of this synthesis was to understand the efficacy of treating PTSD symptoms with group psychotherapy. To begin this investigation, the following PICO (population, intervention, comparison, outcome) question was asked: In adults diagnosed with PTSD, how effective is group cognitive behavioral therapy in reducing PTSD-related symptoms?

Methods

Research articles addressing the use of GCBT in PTSD were obtained via database searches that took place during October 2012 (Table). Searched databases included the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Randomized Controlled Trials, Psychological Information (PsycINFO), and Public Medicine (PubMed).

The PubMed database was searched using the following MeSH (medical subject heading) terms: “psychotherapy, group” and “stress disorders, post-traumatic” and “cognitive therapy.” Limitations were set to include only patients aged ≥ 18 years, results in English, those involving human subjects, and articles published within the past 5 years. A manual search of references was also conducted, and relevant articles were retained.

Articles that addressed primary substance abuse, other DSM Axis I disorders, intimate partner violence, or family issues were excluded from the evidence sample due to concerns of an alternate treatment focus. Articles with a focus on telehealth or alternative medicine were considered confounding to the scope of this review were also excluded. It was also noted that the term CBT is used collectively for an umbrella of treatments; however, treatments that focused on elements other than the components of CBT being delivered in a group were not included. To prevent duplication of the results, research from an inclusive review was not considered individually.

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE

Six works fulfilled the PICO criteria and were of sufficient quality to be synthesized. Of the 6 articles retained for synthesis, 2 were high-level reviews. Both reviews supported the use of GCBT for PTSD treatment. Barrera and colleagues reported an overall large effect size regardless of the presence of exposure in-group among the 12 treatment conditions and 651 study participants.⁸ These researchers also reported that in-group exposure did not further traumatize other group members.

Similarly, although a notably older and smaller review, Bisson and Andrew reported a significant standard mean deviation between 4 GCBT treatment and wait list controls. These reviewers did not find a significant difference between trauma- and nontrauma-focused treatment groups. The reviews also noted that individual psychotherapy and/or pharmacotherapy was most often continued throughout the reviewed studies.^8,9

The 4 other studies contribute substantively to this synthesis but arguably represent lower evidence quality. A large longitudinal study of 496 Australian veterans reported a large effect size that was sustained 9 months after treatment began.¹⁰ These researchers used an intensive outpatient program that included medication and other treatment modalities as the basis for GCBT delivery. They reported that the majority of the patients revealed improvement in PTSD symptoms.

Another study sampled a similar group of 10 combat veterans but focused particular attention on sleep-related PTSD symptoms of insomnia, nightmares, and sleep quality.¹¹ Although these researchers were unable to report a significant difference in overall PTSD symptoms for the 8 subjects who completed the protocol, they did find a large effect size on insomnia severity and a medium effect size on sleep quality. Regular treatment, including medication, continued throughout this study.

Other researchers reported a medium effect size on PTSD symptoms while using GCBT in a heterogeneous group with various anxiety disorders, including obsessive compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, panic disorders, and PTSD.¹² Although reporting similar results as all other included studies, this study has some significant limitations, including a 26% dropout rate among the 152 participants. The final study included for synthesis reported a remarkable 67% elimination of the PTSD diagnosis among 6 motor vehicle accident survivors in the small, uncontrolled study.¹³ Concomitant treatments, including medications, were not reported in detail for these 4 studies except as mentioned.

As a whole, the 6 studies revealed some appreciable commonalities. Time since diagnosis did not seem to influence the results. Attrition was consistently found to be similar to other PTSD treatments. The reported session topics were loosely based on common CBT tenets (ie, education, challenging cognitions, and relaxation techniques) and were typically similar among treatment groups, including the use of homework.

DISCUSSION

As the diagnosis of PTSD increases to unfamiliar levels, GCBT has the potential to be helpful to clinicians and patients seeking alternatives to their current treatments.^1,4,14 The reported results imply that GCBT can be useful in PTSD symptom reduction. This could be particularly useful to VA and military providers or rural providers operating with limited resources.

Treatment protocols are not well established and should be approached with care prior to the establishment of CBT treatment groups for those diagnosed with PTSD. Session overviews and descriptions, such as those mentioned in Thompson and colleagues, could provide a reference point for future use.¹³

Also worth considering, CBT can be an ambiguous term requiring deliberate definition within treatment protocols. As noted in the VA and DoD CPG, exposure- and trauma-focused treatment designs can be efficacious, but these elements do not seem to be required within the GCBT treatment setting.

The current research also suggests GCBT efficacy regardless of the index trauma. This does not suggest that heterogeneous groups were frequently studied nor can conclusions be drawn regarding heterogeneous treatment groups. Elements such as group size and session length are inconsistently reported and require specific consideration as well. There is a distinct lack of research directly comparing individual CBT with GCBT directly, which prohibits meaningful conclusions regarding PTSD symptom reduction. This research gap may well have influenced the recommendations within the VA and DoD CPG. Although some higher quality studies exist, many of the published reports on GCBT have noteworthy design flaw, such as inadequate controls and statistical analysis.

LIMITATIONS

There are some limitations to this literature synthesis. Although the search was limited to the past 5 years, the inclusion of reviews accounts for older evidence. As alluded to earlier, the lack of a standardized GCBT treatment protocol challenges results comparisons as well. The consequent treatment variations make direct interstudy comparison and synthesis difficult. Similarly, outcome measures varied between studies. Also, group psychotherapy is well established and accepted. Therefore, much of the supporting research was accomplished outside the parameters of this literature search. This empirical view of group psychotherapy among mental health providers may also contribute to the lack of available research.

It is also worth noting that studies finding neutral or negative results are often unpublished. This publication bias could account for the lack of available evidence. The research reports do not consistently report therapist qualifications; however, board certificates in group psychotherapy and CBT are undeniably variables available for debate. The inclusion of uncontrolled trials limits these findings as well. Although the above limitations are not exhaustive, they do provide necessary caveats to future generalizations.

FUTURE IMPLICATIONS

Perhaps the most important information to gain from future research is that of treatment outcomes. Studies that include a detailed outcome evaluation could reveal patient satisfaction, efficacy, and financial considerations. In the presence of adequate supportive data, GCBT could contribute outcome data regarding trauma survivor symptom normalization, peer support formation, access to care, treatment efficiency, and health care resources utilization. As noted in Barrera and colleagues, future analysis will require a greater volume of trials with an overall increase in methodological rigor.⁸

Current research has demonstrated a solid base from which to spawn specific treatment protocols. The available research is investigational in terms of treatment procedures. Replication of these studies could dictate treatment protocol and contribute substantively to future VA and DoD CPG updates. Future researchers should consider the use of a standard PTSD symptom assessment tool to make interstudy comparisons more meaningful. The length of treatment and exposure elements should be targeted specifically in future research as these components currently vary the most.

The military represents an obvious avenue for future research due to increased PTSD diagnosis in recent years. Although the etiology of the increase in PTSD is unclear and most likely multifactorial (decreased resilience, increased awareness, increased pursuit of secondary gains, etc), the need for treatment options is apparent.¹ Group cohesion has been shown to be a core component of successful group psychotherapy, so military members who are accustomed to unit cohesion might represent a uniquely suitable population for this modality.¹⁵ Interestingly and for reasons not currently understood, veterans do not see effects of therapy as large as their civilian counterparts.⁸ This underscores the need for further evaluation of military-specific outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the available evidence is not robust, results do support the careful use of GCBT as an effective treatment for PTSD symptom reduction.⁸ Group psychotherapy has been generally regarded as an efficacious and cost-effective method to achieve similar outcomes to individual therapy. Increasing PTSD prevalence compels mental health care providers to explore all available treatment options. The potential for GCBT as an option is exciting, especially for mental health providers and those with limited resources. Rising health care standards and the current national fiscal situation is dictating a reevaluation of treatment options; so perhaps all health care providers will soon consider the use of GCBT.

As with any group assignment, the clinician should carefully consider the individual’s suitability and desire for group participation.¹⁶ With GCBT, providers could facilitate the relief of relentless apprehension and functional impairment for several patients simultaneously. Although there are many details left to explore regarding the use of GCBT for PTSD, the therapy’s foundation for use as a PTSD treatment is apparent.

Author disclosures
The author reports no actual or potential conflicts of interest with regard to this article.

Disclaimer
The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of Federal Practitioner, Frontline Medical Communications Inc., the U.S. Government, or any of its agencies. This article may discuss unlabeled or investigational use of certain drugs. Please review the complete prescribing information for specific drugs or drug combinations—including indications, contraindications, warnings, and adverse effects—before administering pharmacologic therapy to patients.

Anxiety is a necessary and natural reaction to trauma, but, sometimes, anxiety symptoms become excessive and problematic, as experienced with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Some patients who struggle with PTSD endure a relentless apprehension so intense that it keeps them from participating in everyday activities, such as attending work and partaking in social activities. Associated anxiety symptoms severely impair everyday function and include increased heart rate, sweating, intrusive images, poor attention, fear, or insomnia. Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms often lead to occupational dysfunction, relationship difficulty, and numerous other functional impairments.

Approximately 300,000 veterans meet the criteria for PTSD related to ongoing or recent wars.¹ The veteran does not bear the personal and functional burden alone; however, the financial load is felt throughout society. One recent study suggests that for veterans diagnosed with PTSD, the first 2 years after deployment cost society an estimated $7,000 per individial.² Current research suggests that this potentially debilitating disorder occurs in about 14% of Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation Enduring Freedom combat troops, whereas the similar U.S. demographic population experiences PTSD at a rate of about 7%.^1,3 The ongoing military trauma exposures are compelling the mental health community to establish efficient and effective treatment options.^4,5

Several treatment strategies exist to reduce PTSD symptoms, but health care professionals must seek a balance between therapeutic benefit and cost. The treatment of PTSD is diverse and variable; however, in the most recent Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG) for PTSD, the VA and DoD specifically endorse some psychotherapeutic interventions while dissuading the use of others.⁶ Of note, the VA and DoD CPG strongly encourages Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) and similar cognitive therapies aimed at guiding patients through the process of consciously understanding the relationship between thoughts and feelings and then modifying thoughts to appropriately manage stressors.⁶ Meanwhile, group psychotherapy has been determined to be “somewhat helpful.”⁶ Even though cognitive- and group-based therapies have long been established as efficacious for numerous psychological disorders (depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, eating disorders, etc), neither the American Group Psychotherapy Association nor the VA and DoD CPG directly endorse the use of group cognitive behavioral therapy (GCBT) for the treatment of PTSD.^6,7 However, both VA and DoD mental health providers commonly practice CBT and various group psychotherapies for the treatment of PTSD.

Despite the widespread use of CBT, there is a gap in the clinical understanding of the evidence supporting GCBT for PTSD. The goal of this synthesis was to understand the efficacy of treating PTSD symptoms with group psychotherapy. To begin this investigation, the following PICO (population, intervention, comparison, outcome) question was asked: In adults diagnosed with PTSD, how effective is group cognitive behavioral therapy in reducing PTSD-related symptoms?

Methods

Research articles addressing the use of GCBT in PTSD were obtained via database searches that took place during October 2012 (Table). Searched databases included the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Randomized Controlled Trials, Psychological Information (PsycINFO), and Public Medicine (PubMed).

The PubMed database was searched using the following MeSH (medical subject heading) terms: “psychotherapy, group” and “stress disorders, post-traumatic” and “cognitive therapy.” Limitations were set to include only patients aged ≥ 18 years, results in English, those involving human subjects, and articles published within the past 5 years. A manual search of references was also conducted, and relevant articles were retained.

Articles that addressed primary substance abuse, other DSM Axis I disorders, intimate partner violence, or family issues were excluded from the evidence sample due to concerns of an alternate treatment focus. Articles with a focus on telehealth or alternative medicine were considered confounding to the scope of this review were also excluded. It was also noted that the term CBT is used collectively for an umbrella of treatments; however, treatments that focused on elements other than the components of CBT being delivered in a group were not included. To prevent duplication of the results, research from an inclusive review was not considered individually.

SUMMARY OF EVIDENCE

Six works fulfilled the PICO criteria and were of sufficient quality to be synthesized. Of the 6 articles retained for synthesis, 2 were high-level reviews. Both reviews supported the use of GCBT for PTSD treatment. Barrera and colleagues reported an overall large effect size regardless of the presence of exposure in-group among the 12 treatment conditions and 651 study participants.⁸ These researchers also reported that in-group exposure did not further traumatize other group members.

Similarly, although a notably older and smaller review, Bisson and Andrew reported a significant standard mean deviation between 4 GCBT treatment and wait list controls. These reviewers did not find a significant difference between trauma- and nontrauma-focused treatment groups. The reviews also noted that individual psychotherapy and/or pharmacotherapy was most often continued throughout the reviewed studies.^8,9

The 4 other studies contribute substantively to this synthesis but arguably represent lower evidence quality. A large longitudinal study of 496 Australian veterans reported a large effect size that was sustained 9 months after treatment began.¹⁰ These researchers used an intensive outpatient program that included medication and other treatment modalities as the basis for GCBT delivery. They reported that the majority of the patients revealed improvement in PTSD symptoms.

Another study sampled a similar group of 10 combat veterans but focused particular attention on sleep-related PTSD symptoms of insomnia, nightmares, and sleep quality.¹¹ Although these researchers were unable to report a significant difference in overall PTSD symptoms for the 8 subjects who completed the protocol, they did find a large effect size on insomnia severity and a medium effect size on sleep quality. Regular treatment, including medication, continued throughout this study.

Other researchers reported a medium effect size on PTSD symptoms while using GCBT in a heterogeneous group with various anxiety disorders, including obsessive compulsive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, panic disorders, and PTSD.¹² Although reporting similar results as all other included studies, this study has some significant limitations, including a 26% dropout rate among the 152 participants. The final study included for synthesis reported a remarkable 67% elimination of the PTSD diagnosis among 6 motor vehicle accident survivors in the small, uncontrolled study.¹³ Concomitant treatments, including medications, were not reported in detail for these 4 studies except as mentioned.

As a whole, the 6 studies revealed some appreciable commonalities. Time since diagnosis did not seem to influence the results. Attrition was consistently found to be similar to other PTSD treatments. The reported session topics were loosely based on common CBT tenets (ie, education, challenging cognitions, and relaxation techniques) and were typically similar among treatment groups, including the use of homework.

DISCUSSION

As the diagnosis of PTSD increases to unfamiliar levels, GCBT has the potential to be helpful to clinicians and patients seeking alternatives to their current treatments.^1,4,14 The reported results imply that GCBT can be useful in PTSD symptom reduction. This could be particularly useful to VA and military providers or rural providers operating with limited resources.

Treatment protocols are not well established and should be approached with care prior to the establishment of CBT treatment groups for those diagnosed with PTSD. Session overviews and descriptions, such as those mentioned in Thompson and colleagues, could provide a reference point for future use.¹³

Also worth considering, CBT can be an ambiguous term requiring deliberate definition within treatment protocols. As noted in the VA and DoD CPG, exposure- and trauma-focused treatment designs can be efficacious, but these elements do not seem to be required within the GCBT treatment setting.

The current research also suggests GCBT efficacy regardless of the index trauma. This does not suggest that heterogeneous groups were frequently studied nor can conclusions be drawn regarding heterogeneous treatment groups. Elements such as group size and session length are inconsistently reported and require specific consideration as well. There is a distinct lack of research directly comparing individual CBT with GCBT directly, which prohibits meaningful conclusions regarding PTSD symptom reduction. This research gap may well have influenced the recommendations within the VA and DoD CPG. Although some higher quality studies exist, many of the published reports on GCBT have noteworthy design flaw, such as inadequate controls and statistical analysis.

LIMITATIONS

There are some limitations to this literature synthesis. Although the search was limited to the past 5 years, the inclusion of reviews accounts for older evidence. As alluded to earlier, the lack of a standardized GCBT treatment protocol challenges results comparisons as well. The consequent treatment variations make direct interstudy comparison and synthesis difficult. Similarly, outcome measures varied between studies. Also, group psychotherapy is well established and accepted. Therefore, much of the supporting research was accomplished outside the parameters of this literature search. This empirical view of group psychotherapy among mental health providers may also contribute to the lack of available research.

It is also worth noting that studies finding neutral or negative results are often unpublished. This publication bias could account for the lack of available evidence. The research reports do not consistently report therapist qualifications; however, board certificates in group psychotherapy and CBT are undeniably variables available for debate. The inclusion of uncontrolled trials limits these findings as well. Although the above limitations are not exhaustive, they do provide necessary caveats to future generalizations.

FUTURE IMPLICATIONS

Perhaps the most important information to gain from future research is that of treatment outcomes. Studies that include a detailed outcome evaluation could reveal patient satisfaction, efficacy, and financial considerations. In the presence of adequate supportive data, GCBT could contribute outcome data regarding trauma survivor symptom normalization, peer support formation, access to care, treatment efficiency, and health care resources utilization. As noted in Barrera and colleagues, future analysis will require a greater volume of trials with an overall increase in methodological rigor.⁸

Current research has demonstrated a solid base from which to spawn specific treatment protocols. The available research is investigational in terms of treatment procedures. Replication of these studies could dictate treatment protocol and contribute substantively to future VA and DoD CPG updates. Future researchers should consider the use of a standard PTSD symptom assessment tool to make interstudy comparisons more meaningful. The length of treatment and exposure elements should be targeted specifically in future research as these components currently vary the most.

The military represents an obvious avenue for future research due to increased PTSD diagnosis in recent years. Although the etiology of the increase in PTSD is unclear and most likely multifactorial (decreased resilience, increased awareness, increased pursuit of secondary gains, etc), the need for treatment options is apparent.¹ Group cohesion has been shown to be a core component of successful group psychotherapy, so military members who are accustomed to unit cohesion might represent a uniquely suitable population for this modality.¹⁵ Interestingly and for reasons not currently understood, veterans do not see effects of therapy as large as their civilian counterparts.⁸ This underscores the need for further evaluation of military-specific outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the available evidence is not robust, results do support the careful use of GCBT as an effective treatment for PTSD symptom reduction.⁸ Group psychotherapy has been generally regarded as an efficacious and cost-effective method to achieve similar outcomes to individual therapy. Increasing PTSD prevalence compels mental health care providers to explore all available treatment options. The potential for GCBT as an option is exciting, especially for mental health providers and those with limited resources. Rising health care standards and the current national fiscal situation is dictating a reevaluation of treatment options; so perhaps all health care providers will soon consider the use of GCBT.

As with any group assignment, the clinician should carefully consider the individual’s suitability and desire for group participation.¹⁶ With GCBT, providers could facilitate the relief of relentless apprehension and functional impairment for several patients simultaneously. Although there are many details left to explore regarding the use of GCBT for PTSD, the therapy’s foundation for use as a PTSD treatment is apparent.

Author disclosures
The author reports no actual or potential conflicts of interest with regard to this article.

Disclaimer
The opinions expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of Federal Practitioner, Frontline Medical Communications Inc., the U.S. Government, or any of its agencies. This article may discuss unlabeled or investigational use of certain drugs. Please review the complete prescribing information for specific drugs or drug combinations—including indications, contraindications, warnings, and adverse effects—before administering pharmacologic therapy to patients.