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Prescribing antipsychotics in geriatric patients: Focus on dementia
Author(s)
Helen C. Kales, MD
Benoit H. Mulsant, MD, MS
Martha Sajatovic, MD
 

According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, in 2007, 88% of 1.4 million Medicare claims for second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) in older adult nursing home residents were associated with a dementia diagnosis. Similar trends have been observed in Canada and Europe.1-4 In a retrospective analysis of medication data from older residents with dementia in 6 care homes in England, long-term (ie, >1 month) use of antipsychotics was the most frequent potentially inappropriate prescribing practice.3 In another study in 7 European countries and Israel, the overall prevalence of antipsychotic use among long-term care residents with dementia was 33%.1 Similarly, a recent literature review5 found that 22% to 86% of antipsychotic prescriptions to older individuals were off-label; this practice was particularly common for individuals with agitation.

Because of the aging population and widespread prescription of antipsychotics to older patients, clinicians need information on the relative risks of using these medications in this population. In the United States, all antipsychotics carry a FDA “black-box” warning of the increased risk of death in older adults with dementia. In addition, the risk of death is increased when prescribing antipsychotics to older adults with other conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease,6 and other safety and tolerability concerns, including falls and fractures, sedation, metabolic abnormalities, and extrapyramidal effects, are highly relevant to geriatric patients.

This 3-part review summarizes findings and recommendations on prescribing antipsychotics to older individuals with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and dementia. This third and final installment:

  • briefly summarizes the major studies and analyses relevant to prescribing antipsychotics to older patients with dementia
  • provides a summative opinion on safety and tolerability issues in these older patients
  • highlights the gaps in the evidence base and areas that need additional research.


Summary of benefits, place in treatment armamentarium

Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) include agitation, delusional beliefs, repetitive questioning, hallucinations, aggression, wandering, and various socially inappropriate behaviors.7 These occur almost universally in all types and stages of dementia.7 BPSD are among the most complex, stressful, and costly aspects of dementia care, and lead to a myriad of poor health outcomes, including excess morbidity, mortality, hospital stays, and early nursing home placement.8-11 Because BPSD usually occur across all types and stages of dementia,7,12-16 the prevalence of BPSD mirrors the overall prevalence of dementia.

Although all expert organizations, including the American Psychiatric Association,17 recommend nonpharmacologic strategies as first-line treatment for BPSD, for the most part, these recommendations have not been translated into standard clinical management or routine care.18 Because of a perceived lack of other options, the current mainstay of treatment is the off-label use of psychotropics such as antipsy­chotics. Of all the agents currently used for BPSD, SGAs have the strongest evidence base, although benefits are modest at best (standardized effect size 0.13 to 0.16).19,20 In terms of individual SGAs, only risperidone is indicated for aggression in Canada and in Europe (not in the United States); risperidone has the best evidence for efficacy, with a meta-analysis of 5 published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) reporting that risperidone is superior to other SGAs for aggression in dementia.21,22 As a class, first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs) have no clear evidence for BPSD as defined broadly; however, there may be slight benefit for haloperidol for aggression.23,24


Clinical Trials

Adverse effects. A meta-analysis of RCTs of SGAs found that, compared with placebo, SGAs have increased rates of several adverse effects. These include somnolence (17% drug vs 7% placebo; odds ratio [OR], 2.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.25 to 3.58; P < .00001); extrapyramidal symptoms (13% drug vs 8% placebo; OR, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.20 to 1.91; P = .0005; primarily attributable to risperidone); abnormal gait (10% drug vs 2% placebo; OR, 3.42; 95% CI, 1.78 to 6.56; P = .0002; attributable to olanzapine and risperidone); edema (9% drug vs 4% placebo; OR, 1.99; 95% CI, 1.20 to 3.30; P = .008; attributable to olanzapine and risperidone); urinary tract infections/incontinence (16% drug vs 12% placebo; OR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.61; P = .04); cognitive impairment measured as difference in Mini-Mental State Examination score (95% CI, 0.38 to 1.09; P < .0001)25; and stroke (1.9% drug vs 0.9% placebo, OR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.20 to 3.75; P = .009).21,26

In the 42-site Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness Alzheimer’s disease RCT, 421 outpatients with Alzheimer’s disease and BPSD were randomized to an SGA (risperidone, olanzapine, or quetiapine) or placebo. Compared with placebo, SGAs had a higher rate of parkinsonism or extrapyramidal signs (olanzapine and risperidone groups); sedation; confusion/changes in mental status (olanzapine and risperidone); psychotic symptoms (olanzapine); and increase in body weight and body mass index.26

In the 2005 FDA black-box warning, pneumonia and cardiac adverse effects were cited as primary causes of death for patients with dementia taking SGAs. A subsequent observational study confirmed that use of either FGAs or SGAs in geriatric patients was associated with an increased risk of pneumonia, in a dose-dependent manner.27 Although there is limited data on cardiac adverse effects in older adults, especially those with dementia taking antipsychotics,28 1 observational study of nursing home residents29 found that those taking FGAs had a significantly higher risk of hospitalization for ventricular arrhythmia or cardiac arrest compared with those who were not taking FGAs. In contrast, there was no increased risk with SGAs.

Mortality.
 In 2005, the FDA announced that based on a reanalysis of 17 placebo-controlled trials (many of which were unpublished) that SGAs were associated with a 1.7-fold increase in mortality compared with placebo.30 As a result, the FDA issued a black-box warning for using SGAs in patients with dementia. The overall OR in a published meta-analysis of mortality with SGAs was 1.54 (1.06 to 2.23; z = 2.28; P = .02), with pooled events of 3.5% mortality vs 2.3% (drug vs placebo).21 This meta-analysis21 also included ad hoc analyses of haloperidol; using combined data from 2 contrasts of haloperidol (with risperidone and quetiapine; 243 patients receiving haloperidol and 239 receiving placebo) they also found 15 deaths (6.2%) with haloperidol and 9 (3.8%) with placebo, resulting in an OR of 1.68.

 

 

 

Other clinical data

Observational studies. Most observational studies have confirmed concerns regarding increased mortality in patients with BPSD who take antipsychotics, with FGAs having a higher risk than SGAs18,31 and SGAs having a higher risk compared with most other psychotropics.32 Three studies that found no increase in mortality with antipsychotics in patients with dementia had methodological issues, including examining prevalence as opposed to new users,33,34 not controlling for exposure,10,33,34 power issues,10,34 not controlling for other psychiatric medications,10 and varying lengths of follow-up.10 An FDA black-box warning for FGAs was announced in 200830 based on 2 observational studies that showed an increased risk of mortality in older adults taking FGAs vs SGAs.35,36

In terms of specific SGAs, Kales et al37 examined the mortality risk associated with individual antipsychotics using various methods to control for confounding. Among a national sample of >33,000 older veterans with dementia newly started on haloperidol, risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine, or valproic acid and derivatives (as a nonantipsychotic comparator), the highest mortality across all analyses (intent to treat, exposure, propensity-adjusted) was associated with haloperidol, followed by risperidone and olanzapine, valproic acid, and quetiapine.

Most recently, a retrospective case-control study (90,786 patients age ≥65 with dementia) examined the number needed to harm (NNH; ie, number of patients needed to receive treatment that would result in 1 death) over 180 days following initiation of an FGA or SGA.38 This study found the following NNHs: haloperidol, 26 (95% CI, 15 to 99); risperidone, 27 (95% CI, 19 to 46); olanzapine, 40 (95% CI, 21 to 312); and quetiapine, 50 (95% CI, 30 to 150).38 These results are congruent with a review of observational studies that found the highest risk of mortality was associated with haloperidol and chlorpromazine, and the lowest risk with olanzapine, quetiapine, and ziprasidone.28

Patterns of antipsychotic use in older dementia patients

There are high rates of antipsychotic use in patients with dementia. Before the FDA issued the black-box warning, the Aging Demographics and Memory study found that the rate of antipsychotic use in community (outpatient) older adults with dementia was approximately 19% between 2002 and 2004 in a representative sample of 307 older adults.39 Another study examining trends in community antipsychotic use in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) found that in the 1990s, SGA use was increasing; approximately 18% of outpatients with dementia were taking these agents.40 Use of SGAs began to decline in 2003, ahead of the 2005 black-box warning, in tandem with other advisories (eg, diabetes, metabolic syndrome,41 and stroke risk).42,43 Olanzapine and risperidone showed declining rates between 2003 and 2005, whereas quetiapine use significantly increased during this period. All 3 SGAs declined after the black-box warning. However, by the end of 2007, the use of SGAs had leveled off to approximately 12% of VA patients with dementia. A recent U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) report found that in 2012, 14% of older adult Medicare Part D enrollees with dementia living in the community were prescribed an antipsychotic.44

Use in nursing home residents. Because BPSD are one of the main reasons people with dementia are placed in nursing homes, it is not surprising that rates of antipsychotic use are higher in these settings than in the community. Prior to the black-box warning, studies found that 24% to 32% of nursing home residents were treated with antipsychotics.45-47 A study examining VA nursing homes (n = 133 facilities, n = 3,692 veterans) found that approximately 26% of residents were prescribed antipsychotics in 2004 to 2005.48 The Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) National Partnership to Improve Dementia Care in Nursing Homes has appeared to lower antipsychotic medication use in nursing homes; the rate decreased from 24% in long-stay nursing home residents nationwide in 2011 to 19% by the end of 2014. Specific to dementia, a 2010 CMS report49 indicated that approximately 40% of nursing home residents with cognitive impairment and behavioral issues, without psychosis, received antipsychotics. The GAO data indicated that approximately 33% of older Medicare Part D enrollees with dementia who spent >100 days in a nursing home were prescribed an antipsychotic in 2012.44 A recent Canadian study using drug claims data found that overall psychotropic use in patients with dementia remains high, finding that three-fourths of all patients with dementia in long-term care are given at least 1 psychotropic, and up to one-third are prescribed SGAs.50 European data similarly show that antipsychotics continue to be prescribed to up to one-third of long-term care residents with dementia, with 7 out of 10 receiving an SGA.1

 

 

Conclusions

The Table provides a summary of the evidence regarding the use of antipsychotics in patients with dementia. Expert consensus is that among BPSD, aggression and psychosis are the primary indications for using antipsychotics.51 Based on multiple RCTs and meta-analyses, the evidence for using SGAs to treat these symptoms is moderate at best. However, in real-world practice settings, SGAs are widely used for symptoms, such as wandering, inappropriate behaviors, resistance to care, etc., for which there is no evidence for efficacy other than sedation. Furthermore, even when there is a potential for benefit, this must be balanced against the risk of adverse effects, including somnolence, worsened cognition, extra­pyramidal symptoms, stroke, and mortality.
 

Clinicians who care for older adults with BPSD should strive to increase the use of first-line nonpharmacologic strategies, by using structured approaches such as DICE (Describe, Investigate, Create, Evaluate) described in the Box.51 Antipsychotics should be reserved for situations in which nonpharmacologic approaches are unsuccessful, or there is concern for serious or imminent risk to the patient or others.

 

In the future, observational studies using biomarkers, such as neuroimaging markers, of brain health in older patients taking antipsychotics for various durations may give us a better understanding of long-term antipsychotic safety and tolerability and the monitoring required to assess long-term burden of specific antipsychotics in real-world samples.52 However, because of various biases, observational data may not provide answers to all questions,53 and a major challenge is that the number of published RCTs specific to geriatric patients is not growing substantially. Pharmacotherapy evidence is not keeping up with demographic trends. Key developments in RCTs will be the inclusion of biomarkers via neuroimaging, drug serum or brain levels, and genetic profiling. Because of the modest findings of benefits of antipsychotics in dementia and safety concerns addressing brain health in preclinical or early stages, identification of effective non-drug interventions and identifying true disease-modifying agents will be the next challenges of dementia research.
 

Bottom Line

Second-generation antipsychotics should be prescribed for patients with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia only when nonpharmacological approaches are unsuccessful, or there is an imminent risk to the patient or others because of aggression or psychosis.

Related Resources

  • Steinberg M, Lyketsos CG. Atypical antipsychotic use in patients with dementia: managing safety concerns. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(9):900-906.
  • Gitlin LN, Kales HC, Lyketsos CG. Nonpharmacologic management of behavioral symptoms in dementia. JAMA. 2012;308(19):2020-2029.

Drug Brand Names

Chlorpromazine • Ormazine, Thorazine
Haloperidol • Haldol
Olanzapine • Zyprexa
Quetiapine • Seroquel
Risperidone • Risperdal
Valproic acid • Depakene
Ziprasidone • Geodon

References

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2. Foebel A, Ballokova A, Wellens NI, et al. A retrospective, longitudinal study of factors associated with new antipsychotic medication use among recently admitted long-term care residents. BMC Geriatr. 2015;15:128.
3. Parsons C, Johnston S, Mathie E, et al. Potentially inappropriate prescribing in older people with dementia in care homes: a retrospective analysis. Drugs Aging. 2012;29(2):143-155.
4. Vidal X, Agustí A, Vallano A, et al; Potentially Inappropriate Prescription in Older Patients in Spain (PIPOPS) Investigators’ project. Elderly patients treated with psychotropic medicines admitted to hospital: associated characteristics and inappropriate use. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;72(6):755-764.
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18. Kales HC, Gitlin LN, Lyketsos CG. Assessment and management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. BMJ. 2015;350:h369. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h369.
19. Schneider LS, Pollock VE, Lyness SA. A metaanalysis of controlled trials of neuroleptic treatment in dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1990;38(5):553-563.
20. Yury CA, Fisher JE. Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of behavioural problems in persons with dementia. Psychother Psychosom. 2007;76(4):213-218.
21. Schneider LS, Dagerman K, Insel PS. Efficacy and adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics for dementia: meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006;14(3):191-210.
22. Ballard CG, Waite J. The effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for aggression and psychosis in Alzheimer’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006:1:CD003476.
23. Sink KM, Holden KF, Yaffe K. Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia: a review of the evidence. JAMA. 2005;293(5):596-608.
24. Aisen PS, Cummings J, Schneider LS. Symptomatic and nonamyloid/tau based pharmacologic treatment for Alzheimer disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(3):a006395. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a006395.
25. Schneider LS, Tariot PN, Dagerman KS, et al; CATIE-AD Study Group. Effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic drugs in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(15):1525-1538.
26. Trifirò G, Sultana J, Spina E. Are the safety profiles of antipsychotic drugs used in dementia the same? An updated review of observational studies. Drug Saf. 2014;37(7):501-520.
27. Trifirò G, Gambassi G, Sen EF, et al. Association of community-acquired pneumonia with antipsychotic drug use in elderly patients: a nested case-control study. Ann Intern Med. 2010;152(7):418-425, W139-W140.
28. Sultana J, Trifirò G. Drug safety warnings: a message in a bottle. Analysis. 2008;179:438-446.
29. Liperoti R, Gambassi G, Lapane KL, et al. Cerebrovascular events among elderly nursing home patients treated with conventional or atypical antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(9):1090-1096.
30. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Public health advisory: deaths with antipsychotics in elderly patients with behavioral disturbances. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/postmarketdrugsafety information forpatientsandproviders/ucm053171. Updated August 16, 2013. Accessed October 20, 2017.
31. Wang PS, Schneeweiss S, Avorn J, et al. Risk of death in elderly users of conventional vs. atypical antipsychotic medications. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(22):2335-2341.
32. Kales HC, Valenstein M, Kim HM, et al. Mortality risk in patients with dementia treated with antipsychotics versus other psychiatric medications. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(10):1568-1576; quiz 1623.
33. Simoni-Wastila L, Ryder PT, Qian J, et al. Association of antipsychotic use with hospital events and mortality among medicare beneficiaries residing in long-term care facilities. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;17(5):417-427.
34. Raivio MM, Laurila JV, Strandberg TE, et al. Neither atypical nor conventional antipsychotics increase mortality or hospital admissions among elderly patients with dementia: a two-year prospective study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007;15(5):416-424.
35. Gill SS, Bronskill SE, Normand SL, et al. Antipsychotic drug use and mortality in older adults with dementia. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146(11):775-786.
36. Schneeweiss S, Setoguchi S, Brookhart A, et al. Risk of death associated with the use of conventional versus atypical antipsychotic drugs among elderly patients. CMAJ. 2007;176(5):627-632.
37. Kales HC, Kim HM, Zivin K, et al. Risk of mortality among individual antipsychotics in patients with dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(1):71-79.
38. Maust DT, Kim HM, Seyfried LS, et al. Antipsychotics, other psychotropics, and the risk of death in patients with dementia: number needed to harm. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(5):438-445.
39. Rhee Y, Csernansky JG, Emanuel LL, et al. Psychotropic medication burden and factors associated with antipsychotic use: an analysis of a population-based sample of community-dwelling older persons with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2011;59(11):2100-2107.
40. Kales HC, Zivin K, Kim HM, et al. Trends in antipsychotic use in dementia 1999-2007. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(2):190-197.
41. American Diabetes Association; American Psychiatric Association; American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists; North American Association for the Study of Obesity. Consensus development conference on antipsychotic drugs and obesity and diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(2):596-601.
42. Brodaty H, Ames D, Snowdon J, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of risperidone for the treatment of aggression, agitation, and psychosis of dementia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(2):134-143.
43. Wooltorton E. Risperidone (Risperdal): increased rate of cerebrovascular events in dementia trials. CMAJ. 2002;167(11):1269-1270.
44. United States Government Accountability Office. Antipsychotic drug use: HHS has initiatives to reduce use among older adults in nursing homes, but should expand efforts to other settings. http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/668221.pdf. Published January 2015. Accessed October 20, 2017.
45. Chen Y, Briesacher BA, Field TS, et al. Unexplained variation across US nursing homes in antipsychotic prescribing rates. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170(1):89-95.
46. Feng Z, Hirdes JP, Smith TF, et al. Use of physical restraints and antipsychotic medications in nursing homes: a cross-national study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;24(10):1110-1118.
47. Kamble P, Chen H, Sherer J, et al. Antipsychotic drug use among elderly nursing home residents in the United States. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2008;6(4):187-197.
48. Gellad WF, Aspinall SL, Handler SM, et al. Use of antipsychotics among older residents in VA nursing homes. Med Care. 2012;50(11):954-960.
49. Bonner A. Improving dementia care and reducing unnecessary use of antipsychotic medications in nursing homes. Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services. http://ltcombudsman.org/uploads/files/support/alice-bonner-slides.pdf. Published April 28, 2013. Accessed October 20, 2017.
50. Vasudev A, Shariff SZ, Liu K, et al. Trends in psychotropic dispensing among older adults with dementia living in long-term care facilities: 2004-2013. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;23(12):1259-1269.
51. Kales HC, Gitlin LN, Lyketsos CG, et al; Detroit Expert Panel on Assessment and Management of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Dementia. Management of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia in clinical settings: recommendations from a multidisciplinary expert panel. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014;62(4):762-769.
52. Andreasen NC, Liu D, Ziebell S, et al. Relapse duration, treatment intensity, and brain tissue loss in schizophrenia: a prospective longitudinal MRI study. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(6):609-615.
53. Mulsant BH. Challenges of the treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2014;22(4):317-320.

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Author and Disclosure Information

Helen C. Kales, MD
Professor of Psychiatry
Program for Positive Aging
Department of Psychiatry
University of Michigan
VA Center for Clinical Management Research
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Benoit H. Mulsant, MD, MS
rofessor and Chair
Department of Psychiatry
Senior Scientist
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario

Martha Sajatovic, MD
Professor of Psychiatry and Professor of Neurology
Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology
Case Western Reserve University
University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center
Cleveland, Ohio

Disclosures
Dr. Kales has received research support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Department of Defense, and Veterans Affairs, and reports no financial relationships with any companies whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products. Dr. Mulsant has received research support from Brain Canada, the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the NIH, Bristol-Myers Squibb (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial), Eli Lilly (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial), and Pfizer (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial). Within the past 5 years, he also has received travel support from Roche. Dr. Sajatovic has received research grants from Alkermes, Merck, Janssen, Reuter Foundation, Woodruff Foundation, Reinberger Foundation, NIH, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; has been a consultant to Bracket, Prophase, Otsuka, Sunovion, Supernus and Neurocrine; and has received royalties from Springer Press, Johns Hopkins University Press, Oxford Press, UpToDate, and Lexicomp, and compensation for CME activities from American Physician’s Institute, MCM Education, and CMEology.

Issue
December 2017
Publications
MDedge Psychiatry
Current Psychiatry
Topics
Geriatrics
Page Number
24-30
Sections
Evidence-Based Reviews
Reviews
Author(s)
Helen C. Kales, MD
Benoit H. Mulsant, MD, MS
Martha Sajatovic, MD
Author(s)
Helen C. Kales, MD
Benoit H. Mulsant, MD, MS
Martha Sajatovic, MD
Author and Disclosure Information

Helen C. Kales, MD
Professor of Psychiatry
Program for Positive Aging
Department of Psychiatry
University of Michigan
VA Center for Clinical Management Research
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Benoit H. Mulsant, MD, MS
rofessor and Chair
Department of Psychiatry
Senior Scientist
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario

Martha Sajatovic, MD
Professor of Psychiatry and Professor of Neurology
Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology
Case Western Reserve University
University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center
Cleveland, Ohio

Disclosures
Dr. Kales has received research support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Department of Defense, and Veterans Affairs, and reports no financial relationships with any companies whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products. Dr. Mulsant has received research support from Brain Canada, the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the NIH, Bristol-Myers Squibb (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial), Eli Lilly (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial), and Pfizer (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial). Within the past 5 years, he also has received travel support from Roche. Dr. Sajatovic has received research grants from Alkermes, Merck, Janssen, Reuter Foundation, Woodruff Foundation, Reinberger Foundation, NIH, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; has been a consultant to Bracket, Prophase, Otsuka, Sunovion, Supernus and Neurocrine; and has received royalties from Springer Press, Johns Hopkins University Press, Oxford Press, UpToDate, and Lexicomp, and compensation for CME activities from American Physician’s Institute, MCM Education, and CMEology.

Author and Disclosure Information

Helen C. Kales, MD
Professor of Psychiatry
Program for Positive Aging
Department of Psychiatry
University of Michigan
VA Center for Clinical Management Research
Ann Arbor, Michigan

Benoit H. Mulsant, MD, MS
rofessor and Chair
Department of Psychiatry
Senior Scientist
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario

Martha Sajatovic, MD
Professor of Psychiatry and Professor of Neurology
Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology
Case Western Reserve University
University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center
Cleveland, Ohio

Disclosures
Dr. Kales has received research support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), Department of Defense, and Veterans Affairs, and reports no financial relationships with any companies whose products are mentioned in this article or with manufacturers of competing products. Dr. Mulsant has received research support from Brain Canada, the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the NIH, Bristol-Myers Squibb (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial), Eli Lilly (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial), and Pfizer (medications for an NIH-funded clinical trial). Within the past 5 years, he also has received travel support from Roche. Dr. Sajatovic has received research grants from Alkermes, Merck, Janssen, Reuter Foundation, Woodruff Foundation, Reinberger Foundation, NIH, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; has been a consultant to Bracket, Prophase, Otsuka, Sunovion, Supernus and Neurocrine; and has received royalties from Springer Press, Johns Hopkins University Press, Oxford Press, UpToDate, and Lexicomp, and compensation for CME activities from American Physician’s Institute, MCM Education, and CMEology.

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According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, in 2007, 88% of 1.4 million Medicare claims for second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) in older adult nursing home residents were associated with a dementia diagnosis. Similar trends have been observed in Canada and Europe.1-4 In a retrospective analysis of medication data from older residents with dementia in 6 care homes in England, long-term (ie, >1 month) use of antipsychotics was the most frequent potentially inappropriate prescribing practice.3 In another study in 7 European countries and Israel, the overall prevalence of antipsychotic use among long-term care residents with dementia was 33%.1 Similarly, a recent literature review5 found that 22% to 86% of antipsychotic prescriptions to older individuals were off-label; this practice was particularly common for individuals with agitation.

Because of the aging population and widespread prescription of antipsychotics to older patients, clinicians need information on the relative risks of using these medications in this population. In the United States, all antipsychotics carry a FDA “black-box” warning of the increased risk of death in older adults with dementia. In addition, the risk of death is increased when prescribing antipsychotics to older adults with other conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease,6 and other safety and tolerability concerns, including falls and fractures, sedation, metabolic abnormalities, and extrapyramidal effects, are highly relevant to geriatric patients.

This 3-part review summarizes findings and recommendations on prescribing antipsychotics to older individuals with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and dementia. This third and final installment:

  • briefly summarizes the major studies and analyses relevant to prescribing antipsychotics to older patients with dementia
  • provides a summative opinion on safety and tolerability issues in these older patients
  • highlights the gaps in the evidence base and areas that need additional research.


Summary of benefits, place in treatment armamentarium

Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) include agitation, delusional beliefs, repetitive questioning, hallucinations, aggression, wandering, and various socially inappropriate behaviors.7 These occur almost universally in all types and stages of dementia.7 BPSD are among the most complex, stressful, and costly aspects of dementia care, and lead to a myriad of poor health outcomes, including excess morbidity, mortality, hospital stays, and early nursing home placement.8-11 Because BPSD usually occur across all types and stages of dementia,7,12-16 the prevalence of BPSD mirrors the overall prevalence of dementia.

Although all expert organizations, including the American Psychiatric Association,17 recommend nonpharmacologic strategies as first-line treatment for BPSD, for the most part, these recommendations have not been translated into standard clinical management or routine care.18 Because of a perceived lack of other options, the current mainstay of treatment is the off-label use of psychotropics such as antipsy­chotics. Of all the agents currently used for BPSD, SGAs have the strongest evidence base, although benefits are modest at best (standardized effect size 0.13 to 0.16).19,20 In terms of individual SGAs, only risperidone is indicated for aggression in Canada and in Europe (not in the United States); risperidone has the best evidence for efficacy, with a meta-analysis of 5 published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) reporting that risperidone is superior to other SGAs for aggression in dementia.21,22 As a class, first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs) have no clear evidence for BPSD as defined broadly; however, there may be slight benefit for haloperidol for aggression.23,24


Clinical Trials

Adverse effects. A meta-analysis of RCTs of SGAs found that, compared with placebo, SGAs have increased rates of several adverse effects. These include somnolence (17% drug vs 7% placebo; odds ratio [OR], 2.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.25 to 3.58; P < .00001); extrapyramidal symptoms (13% drug vs 8% placebo; OR, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.20 to 1.91; P = .0005; primarily attributable to risperidone); abnormal gait (10% drug vs 2% placebo; OR, 3.42; 95% CI, 1.78 to 6.56; P = .0002; attributable to olanzapine and risperidone); edema (9% drug vs 4% placebo; OR, 1.99; 95% CI, 1.20 to 3.30; P = .008; attributable to olanzapine and risperidone); urinary tract infections/incontinence (16% drug vs 12% placebo; OR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.61; P = .04); cognitive impairment measured as difference in Mini-Mental State Examination score (95% CI, 0.38 to 1.09; P < .0001)25; and stroke (1.9% drug vs 0.9% placebo, OR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.20 to 3.75; P = .009).21,26

In the 42-site Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness Alzheimer’s disease RCT, 421 outpatients with Alzheimer’s disease and BPSD were randomized to an SGA (risperidone, olanzapine, or quetiapine) or placebo. Compared with placebo, SGAs had a higher rate of parkinsonism or extrapyramidal signs (olanzapine and risperidone groups); sedation; confusion/changes in mental status (olanzapine and risperidone); psychotic symptoms (olanzapine); and increase in body weight and body mass index.26

In the 2005 FDA black-box warning, pneumonia and cardiac adverse effects were cited as primary causes of death for patients with dementia taking SGAs. A subsequent observational study confirmed that use of either FGAs or SGAs in geriatric patients was associated with an increased risk of pneumonia, in a dose-dependent manner.27 Although there is limited data on cardiac adverse effects in older adults, especially those with dementia taking antipsychotics,28 1 observational study of nursing home residents29 found that those taking FGAs had a significantly higher risk of hospitalization for ventricular arrhythmia or cardiac arrest compared with those who were not taking FGAs. In contrast, there was no increased risk with SGAs.

Mortality.
 In 2005, the FDA announced that based on a reanalysis of 17 placebo-controlled trials (many of which were unpublished) that SGAs were associated with a 1.7-fold increase in mortality compared with placebo.30 As a result, the FDA issued a black-box warning for using SGAs in patients with dementia. The overall OR in a published meta-analysis of mortality with SGAs was 1.54 (1.06 to 2.23; z = 2.28; P = .02), with pooled events of 3.5% mortality vs 2.3% (drug vs placebo).21 This meta-analysis21 also included ad hoc analyses of haloperidol; using combined data from 2 contrasts of haloperidol (with risperidone and quetiapine; 243 patients receiving haloperidol and 239 receiving placebo) they also found 15 deaths (6.2%) with haloperidol and 9 (3.8%) with placebo, resulting in an OR of 1.68.

 

 

 

Other clinical data

Observational studies. Most observational studies have confirmed concerns regarding increased mortality in patients with BPSD who take antipsychotics, with FGAs having a higher risk than SGAs18,31 and SGAs having a higher risk compared with most other psychotropics.32 Three studies that found no increase in mortality with antipsychotics in patients with dementia had methodological issues, including examining prevalence as opposed to new users,33,34 not controlling for exposure,10,33,34 power issues,10,34 not controlling for other psychiatric medications,10 and varying lengths of follow-up.10 An FDA black-box warning for FGAs was announced in 200830 based on 2 observational studies that showed an increased risk of mortality in older adults taking FGAs vs SGAs.35,36

In terms of specific SGAs, Kales et al37 examined the mortality risk associated with individual antipsychotics using various methods to control for confounding. Among a national sample of >33,000 older veterans with dementia newly started on haloperidol, risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine, or valproic acid and derivatives (as a nonantipsychotic comparator), the highest mortality across all analyses (intent to treat, exposure, propensity-adjusted) was associated with haloperidol, followed by risperidone and olanzapine, valproic acid, and quetiapine.

Most recently, a retrospective case-control study (90,786 patients age ≥65 with dementia) examined the number needed to harm (NNH; ie, number of patients needed to receive treatment that would result in 1 death) over 180 days following initiation of an FGA or SGA.38 This study found the following NNHs: haloperidol, 26 (95% CI, 15 to 99); risperidone, 27 (95% CI, 19 to 46); olanzapine, 40 (95% CI, 21 to 312); and quetiapine, 50 (95% CI, 30 to 150).38 These results are congruent with a review of observational studies that found the highest risk of mortality was associated with haloperidol and chlorpromazine, and the lowest risk with olanzapine, quetiapine, and ziprasidone.28

Patterns of antipsychotic use in older dementia patients

There are high rates of antipsychotic use in patients with dementia. Before the FDA issued the black-box warning, the Aging Demographics and Memory study found that the rate of antipsychotic use in community (outpatient) older adults with dementia was approximately 19% between 2002 and 2004 in a representative sample of 307 older adults.39 Another study examining trends in community antipsychotic use in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) found that in the 1990s, SGA use was increasing; approximately 18% of outpatients with dementia were taking these agents.40 Use of SGAs began to decline in 2003, ahead of the 2005 black-box warning, in tandem with other advisories (eg, diabetes, metabolic syndrome,41 and stroke risk).42,43 Olanzapine and risperidone showed declining rates between 2003 and 2005, whereas quetiapine use significantly increased during this period. All 3 SGAs declined after the black-box warning. However, by the end of 2007, the use of SGAs had leveled off to approximately 12% of VA patients with dementia. A recent U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) report found that in 2012, 14% of older adult Medicare Part D enrollees with dementia living in the community were prescribed an antipsychotic.44

Use in nursing home residents. Because BPSD are one of the main reasons people with dementia are placed in nursing homes, it is not surprising that rates of antipsychotic use are higher in these settings than in the community. Prior to the black-box warning, studies found that 24% to 32% of nursing home residents were treated with antipsychotics.45-47 A study examining VA nursing homes (n = 133 facilities, n = 3,692 veterans) found that approximately 26% of residents were prescribed antipsychotics in 2004 to 2005.48 The Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) National Partnership to Improve Dementia Care in Nursing Homes has appeared to lower antipsychotic medication use in nursing homes; the rate decreased from 24% in long-stay nursing home residents nationwide in 2011 to 19% by the end of 2014. Specific to dementia, a 2010 CMS report49 indicated that approximately 40% of nursing home residents with cognitive impairment and behavioral issues, without psychosis, received antipsychotics. The GAO data indicated that approximately 33% of older Medicare Part D enrollees with dementia who spent >100 days in a nursing home were prescribed an antipsychotic in 2012.44 A recent Canadian study using drug claims data found that overall psychotropic use in patients with dementia remains high, finding that three-fourths of all patients with dementia in long-term care are given at least 1 psychotropic, and up to one-third are prescribed SGAs.50 European data similarly show that antipsychotics continue to be prescribed to up to one-third of long-term care residents with dementia, with 7 out of 10 receiving an SGA.1

 

 

Conclusions

The Table provides a summary of the evidence regarding the use of antipsychotics in patients with dementia. Expert consensus is that among BPSD, aggression and psychosis are the primary indications for using antipsychotics.51 Based on multiple RCTs and meta-analyses, the evidence for using SGAs to treat these symptoms is moderate at best. However, in real-world practice settings, SGAs are widely used for symptoms, such as wandering, inappropriate behaviors, resistance to care, etc., for which there is no evidence for efficacy other than sedation. Furthermore, even when there is a potential for benefit, this must be balanced against the risk of adverse effects, including somnolence, worsened cognition, extra­pyramidal symptoms, stroke, and mortality.
 

Clinicians who care for older adults with BPSD should strive to increase the use of first-line nonpharmacologic strategies, by using structured approaches such as DICE (Describe, Investigate, Create, Evaluate) described in the Box.51 Antipsychotics should be reserved for situations in which nonpharmacologic approaches are unsuccessful, or there is concern for serious or imminent risk to the patient or others.

 

In the future, observational studies using biomarkers, such as neuroimaging markers, of brain health in older patients taking antipsychotics for various durations may give us a better understanding of long-term antipsychotic safety and tolerability and the monitoring required to assess long-term burden of specific antipsychotics in real-world samples.52 However, because of various biases, observational data may not provide answers to all questions,53 and a major challenge is that the number of published RCTs specific to geriatric patients is not growing substantially. Pharmacotherapy evidence is not keeping up with demographic trends. Key developments in RCTs will be the inclusion of biomarkers via neuroimaging, drug serum or brain levels, and genetic profiling. Because of the modest findings of benefits of antipsychotics in dementia and safety concerns addressing brain health in preclinical or early stages, identification of effective non-drug interventions and identifying true disease-modifying agents will be the next challenges of dementia research.
 

Bottom Line

Second-generation antipsychotics should be prescribed for patients with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia only when nonpharmacological approaches are unsuccessful, or there is an imminent risk to the patient or others because of aggression or psychosis.

Related Resources

  • Steinberg M, Lyketsos CG. Atypical antipsychotic use in patients with dementia: managing safety concerns. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(9):900-906.
  • Gitlin LN, Kales HC, Lyketsos CG. Nonpharmacologic management of behavioral symptoms in dementia. JAMA. 2012;308(19):2020-2029.

Drug Brand Names

Chlorpromazine • Ormazine, Thorazine
Haloperidol • Haldol
Olanzapine • Zyprexa
Quetiapine • Seroquel
Risperidone • Risperdal
Valproic acid • Depakene
Ziprasidone • Geodon

 

According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, in 2007, 88% of 1.4 million Medicare claims for second-generation antipsychotics (SGAs) in older adult nursing home residents were associated with a dementia diagnosis. Similar trends have been observed in Canada and Europe.1-4 In a retrospective analysis of medication data from older residents with dementia in 6 care homes in England, long-term (ie, >1 month) use of antipsychotics was the most frequent potentially inappropriate prescribing practice.3 In another study in 7 European countries and Israel, the overall prevalence of antipsychotic use among long-term care residents with dementia was 33%.1 Similarly, a recent literature review5 found that 22% to 86% of antipsychotic prescriptions to older individuals were off-label; this practice was particularly common for individuals with agitation.

Because of the aging population and widespread prescription of antipsychotics to older patients, clinicians need information on the relative risks of using these medications in this population. In the United States, all antipsychotics carry a FDA “black-box” warning of the increased risk of death in older adults with dementia. In addition, the risk of death is increased when prescribing antipsychotics to older adults with other conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease,6 and other safety and tolerability concerns, including falls and fractures, sedation, metabolic abnormalities, and extrapyramidal effects, are highly relevant to geriatric patients.

This 3-part review summarizes findings and recommendations on prescribing antipsychotics to older individuals with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression, and dementia. This third and final installment:

  • briefly summarizes the major studies and analyses relevant to prescribing antipsychotics to older patients with dementia
  • provides a summative opinion on safety and tolerability issues in these older patients
  • highlights the gaps in the evidence base and areas that need additional research.


Summary of benefits, place in treatment armamentarium

Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) include agitation, delusional beliefs, repetitive questioning, hallucinations, aggression, wandering, and various socially inappropriate behaviors.7 These occur almost universally in all types and stages of dementia.7 BPSD are among the most complex, stressful, and costly aspects of dementia care, and lead to a myriad of poor health outcomes, including excess morbidity, mortality, hospital stays, and early nursing home placement.8-11 Because BPSD usually occur across all types and stages of dementia,7,12-16 the prevalence of BPSD mirrors the overall prevalence of dementia.

Although all expert organizations, including the American Psychiatric Association,17 recommend nonpharmacologic strategies as first-line treatment for BPSD, for the most part, these recommendations have not been translated into standard clinical management or routine care.18 Because of a perceived lack of other options, the current mainstay of treatment is the off-label use of psychotropics such as antipsy­chotics. Of all the agents currently used for BPSD, SGAs have the strongest evidence base, although benefits are modest at best (standardized effect size 0.13 to 0.16).19,20 In terms of individual SGAs, only risperidone is indicated for aggression in Canada and in Europe (not in the United States); risperidone has the best evidence for efficacy, with a meta-analysis of 5 published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) reporting that risperidone is superior to other SGAs for aggression in dementia.21,22 As a class, first-generation antipsychotics (FGAs) have no clear evidence for BPSD as defined broadly; however, there may be slight benefit for haloperidol for aggression.23,24


Clinical Trials

Adverse effects. A meta-analysis of RCTs of SGAs found that, compared with placebo, SGAs have increased rates of several adverse effects. These include somnolence (17% drug vs 7% placebo; odds ratio [OR], 2.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.25 to 3.58; P < .00001); extrapyramidal symptoms (13% drug vs 8% placebo; OR, 1.51; 95% CI, 1.20 to 1.91; P = .0005; primarily attributable to risperidone); abnormal gait (10% drug vs 2% placebo; OR, 3.42; 95% CI, 1.78 to 6.56; P = .0002; attributable to olanzapine and risperidone); edema (9% drug vs 4% placebo; OR, 1.99; 95% CI, 1.20 to 3.30; P = .008; attributable to olanzapine and risperidone); urinary tract infections/incontinence (16% drug vs 12% placebo; OR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.02 to 1.61; P = .04); cognitive impairment measured as difference in Mini-Mental State Examination score (95% CI, 0.38 to 1.09; P < .0001)25; and stroke (1.9% drug vs 0.9% placebo, OR, 2.13; 95% CI, 1.20 to 3.75; P = .009).21,26

In the 42-site Clinical Antipsychotic Trials of Intervention Effectiveness Alzheimer’s disease RCT, 421 outpatients with Alzheimer’s disease and BPSD were randomized to an SGA (risperidone, olanzapine, or quetiapine) or placebo. Compared with placebo, SGAs had a higher rate of parkinsonism or extrapyramidal signs (olanzapine and risperidone groups); sedation; confusion/changes in mental status (olanzapine and risperidone); psychotic symptoms (olanzapine); and increase in body weight and body mass index.26

In the 2005 FDA black-box warning, pneumonia and cardiac adverse effects were cited as primary causes of death for patients with dementia taking SGAs. A subsequent observational study confirmed that use of either FGAs or SGAs in geriatric patients was associated with an increased risk of pneumonia, in a dose-dependent manner.27 Although there is limited data on cardiac adverse effects in older adults, especially those with dementia taking antipsychotics,28 1 observational study of nursing home residents29 found that those taking FGAs had a significantly higher risk of hospitalization for ventricular arrhythmia or cardiac arrest compared with those who were not taking FGAs. In contrast, there was no increased risk with SGAs.

Mortality.
 In 2005, the FDA announced that based on a reanalysis of 17 placebo-controlled trials (many of which were unpublished) that SGAs were associated with a 1.7-fold increase in mortality compared with placebo.30 As a result, the FDA issued a black-box warning for using SGAs in patients with dementia. The overall OR in a published meta-analysis of mortality with SGAs was 1.54 (1.06 to 2.23; z = 2.28; P = .02), with pooled events of 3.5% mortality vs 2.3% (drug vs placebo).21 This meta-analysis21 also included ad hoc analyses of haloperidol; using combined data from 2 contrasts of haloperidol (with risperidone and quetiapine; 243 patients receiving haloperidol and 239 receiving placebo) they also found 15 deaths (6.2%) with haloperidol and 9 (3.8%) with placebo, resulting in an OR of 1.68.

 

 

 

Other clinical data

Observational studies. Most observational studies have confirmed concerns regarding increased mortality in patients with BPSD who take antipsychotics, with FGAs having a higher risk than SGAs18,31 and SGAs having a higher risk compared with most other psychotropics.32 Three studies that found no increase in mortality with antipsychotics in patients with dementia had methodological issues, including examining prevalence as opposed to new users,33,34 not controlling for exposure,10,33,34 power issues,10,34 not controlling for other psychiatric medications,10 and varying lengths of follow-up.10 An FDA black-box warning for FGAs was announced in 200830 based on 2 observational studies that showed an increased risk of mortality in older adults taking FGAs vs SGAs.35,36

In terms of specific SGAs, Kales et al37 examined the mortality risk associated with individual antipsychotics using various methods to control for confounding. Among a national sample of >33,000 older veterans with dementia newly started on haloperidol, risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine, or valproic acid and derivatives (as a nonantipsychotic comparator), the highest mortality across all analyses (intent to treat, exposure, propensity-adjusted) was associated with haloperidol, followed by risperidone and olanzapine, valproic acid, and quetiapine.

Most recently, a retrospective case-control study (90,786 patients age ≥65 with dementia) examined the number needed to harm (NNH; ie, number of patients needed to receive treatment that would result in 1 death) over 180 days following initiation of an FGA or SGA.38 This study found the following NNHs: haloperidol, 26 (95% CI, 15 to 99); risperidone, 27 (95% CI, 19 to 46); olanzapine, 40 (95% CI, 21 to 312); and quetiapine, 50 (95% CI, 30 to 150).38 These results are congruent with a review of observational studies that found the highest risk of mortality was associated with haloperidol and chlorpromazine, and the lowest risk with olanzapine, quetiapine, and ziprasidone.28

Patterns of antipsychotic use in older dementia patients

There are high rates of antipsychotic use in patients with dementia. Before the FDA issued the black-box warning, the Aging Demographics and Memory study found that the rate of antipsychotic use in community (outpatient) older adults with dementia was approximately 19% between 2002 and 2004 in a representative sample of 307 older adults.39 Another study examining trends in community antipsychotic use in the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) found that in the 1990s, SGA use was increasing; approximately 18% of outpatients with dementia were taking these agents.40 Use of SGAs began to decline in 2003, ahead of the 2005 black-box warning, in tandem with other advisories (eg, diabetes, metabolic syndrome,41 and stroke risk).42,43 Olanzapine and risperidone showed declining rates between 2003 and 2005, whereas quetiapine use significantly increased during this period. All 3 SGAs declined after the black-box warning. However, by the end of 2007, the use of SGAs had leveled off to approximately 12% of VA patients with dementia. A recent U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) report found that in 2012, 14% of older adult Medicare Part D enrollees with dementia living in the community were prescribed an antipsychotic.44

Use in nursing home residents. Because BPSD are one of the main reasons people with dementia are placed in nursing homes, it is not surprising that rates of antipsychotic use are higher in these settings than in the community. Prior to the black-box warning, studies found that 24% to 32% of nursing home residents were treated with antipsychotics.45-47 A study examining VA nursing homes (n = 133 facilities, n = 3,692 veterans) found that approximately 26% of residents were prescribed antipsychotics in 2004 to 2005.48 The Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) National Partnership to Improve Dementia Care in Nursing Homes has appeared to lower antipsychotic medication use in nursing homes; the rate decreased from 24% in long-stay nursing home residents nationwide in 2011 to 19% by the end of 2014. Specific to dementia, a 2010 CMS report49 indicated that approximately 40% of nursing home residents with cognitive impairment and behavioral issues, without psychosis, received antipsychotics. The GAO data indicated that approximately 33% of older Medicare Part D enrollees with dementia who spent >100 days in a nursing home were prescribed an antipsychotic in 2012.44 A recent Canadian study using drug claims data found that overall psychotropic use in patients with dementia remains high, finding that three-fourths of all patients with dementia in long-term care are given at least 1 psychotropic, and up to one-third are prescribed SGAs.50 European data similarly show that antipsychotics continue to be prescribed to up to one-third of long-term care residents with dementia, with 7 out of 10 receiving an SGA.1

 

 

Conclusions

The Table provides a summary of the evidence regarding the use of antipsychotics in patients with dementia. Expert consensus is that among BPSD, aggression and psychosis are the primary indications for using antipsychotics.51 Based on multiple RCTs and meta-analyses, the evidence for using SGAs to treat these symptoms is moderate at best. However, in real-world practice settings, SGAs are widely used for symptoms, such as wandering, inappropriate behaviors, resistance to care, etc., for which there is no evidence for efficacy other than sedation. Furthermore, even when there is a potential for benefit, this must be balanced against the risk of adverse effects, including somnolence, worsened cognition, extra­pyramidal symptoms, stroke, and mortality.
 

Clinicians who care for older adults with BPSD should strive to increase the use of first-line nonpharmacologic strategies, by using structured approaches such as DICE (Describe, Investigate, Create, Evaluate) described in the Box.51 Antipsychotics should be reserved for situations in which nonpharmacologic approaches are unsuccessful, or there is concern for serious or imminent risk to the patient or others.

 

In the future, observational studies using biomarkers, such as neuroimaging markers, of brain health in older patients taking antipsychotics for various durations may give us a better understanding of long-term antipsychotic safety and tolerability and the monitoring required to assess long-term burden of specific antipsychotics in real-world samples.52 However, because of various biases, observational data may not provide answers to all questions,53 and a major challenge is that the number of published RCTs specific to geriatric patients is not growing substantially. Pharmacotherapy evidence is not keeping up with demographic trends. Key developments in RCTs will be the inclusion of biomarkers via neuroimaging, drug serum or brain levels, and genetic profiling. Because of the modest findings of benefits of antipsychotics in dementia and safety concerns addressing brain health in preclinical or early stages, identification of effective non-drug interventions and identifying true disease-modifying agents will be the next challenges of dementia research.
 

Bottom Line

Second-generation antipsychotics should be prescribed for patients with behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia only when nonpharmacological approaches are unsuccessful, or there is an imminent risk to the patient or others because of aggression or psychosis.

Related Resources

  • Steinberg M, Lyketsos CG. Atypical antipsychotic use in patients with dementia: managing safety concerns. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(9):900-906.
  • Gitlin LN, Kales HC, Lyketsos CG. Nonpharmacologic management of behavioral symptoms in dementia. JAMA. 2012;308(19):2020-2029.

Drug Brand Names

Chlorpromazine • Ormazine, Thorazine
Haloperidol • Haldol
Olanzapine • Zyprexa
Quetiapine • Seroquel
Risperidone • Risperdal
Valproic acid • Depakene
Ziprasidone • Geodon

References

1. Foebel AD, Liperoti R, Onder G, et al; SHELTER Study Investigators. Use of antipsychotic drugs among residents with dementia in European long-term care facilities: results from the SHELTER study. J Am Med Dir Assoc. 2014;15(12):911-917.
2. Foebel A, Ballokova A, Wellens NI, et al. A retrospective, longitudinal study of factors associated with new antipsychotic medication use among recently admitted long-term care residents. BMC Geriatr. 2015;15:128.
3. Parsons C, Johnston S, Mathie E, et al. Potentially inappropriate prescribing in older people with dementia in care homes: a retrospective analysis. Drugs Aging. 2012;29(2):143-155.
4. Vidal X, Agustí A, Vallano A, et al; Potentially Inappropriate Prescription in Older Patients in Spain (PIPOPS) Investigators’ project. Elderly patients treated with psychotropic medicines admitted to hospital: associated characteristics and inappropriate use. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;72(6):755-764.
5. Caron L, Cottencin O, Lapeyre-Mestre M, et al. Off-label prescribing of antipsychotics in adults, children and elderly individuals: a systematic review of recent prescription trends. Curr Pharm Des. 2015;21(23):3280-3297.
6. Weintraub D, Chiang C, Kim HM, et al. Association of antipsychotic use with mortality risk in patients with parkinson disease. JAMA Neurol. 2016;73(5):535-541.
7. Lyketsos CG, Carrillo MC, Ryan JM, et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(5):532-539.
8. Kales HC, Chen P, Blow FC, et al. Rates of clinical depression diagnosis, functional impairment, and nursing home placement in coexisting dementia and depression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005;13(6):441-449.
9. Yaffe K, Fox P, Newcomer R, et al. Patient and caregiver characteristics and nursing home placement in patients with dementia. JAMA. 2002;287(16):2090-2097.
10. Lopez OL, Becker JT, Chang YF, et al. The long-term effects of conventional and atypical antipsychotics in patients with probable Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(9):1051-1058.
11. Vilalta-Franch J, López-Pousa S, Calvó-Perxas L, et al. Psychosis of Alzheimer disease: prevalence, incidence, persistence, risk factors, and mortality. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2013;21(11):1135-1143.
12. Spalletta G, Musicco M, Padovani A, et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms and syndromes in a large cohort of newly diagnosed, untreated patients with Alzheimer disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;18(11):1026-1035.
13. Steinberg M, Shao H, Zandi P, et al; Cache County Investigators. Point and 5-year period prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia: the Cache County Study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2008;23(2):170-177.
14. Finkel SI, Burns A. Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD): a clinical and research update-introduction. International Psychogeriatrics. 2000;12:9-12.
15. Lyketsos CG. Neuropsychiatric symptoms (behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia) and the development of dementia treatments. Int Psychogeriatr. 2007;19(3):409-420.
16. Kunik ME, Snow AL, Davila JA, et al. Causes of aggressive behavior in patients with dementia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(9):1145-1152.
17. Reus VI, Fochtmann LJ, Eyler AE, et al. The American Psychiatric Association practice guideline on the use of antipsychotics to treat agitation or psychosis in patients with dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(5):543-546.
18. Kales HC, Gitlin LN, Lyketsos CG. Assessment and management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. BMJ. 2015;350:h369. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h369.
19. Schneider LS, Pollock VE, Lyness SA. A metaanalysis of controlled trials of neuroleptic treatment in dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1990;38(5):553-563.
20. Yury CA, Fisher JE. Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of behavioural problems in persons with dementia. Psychother Psychosom. 2007;76(4):213-218.
21. Schneider LS, Dagerman K, Insel PS. Efficacy and adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics for dementia: meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006;14(3):191-210.
22. Ballard CG, Waite J. The effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for aggression and psychosis in Alzheimer’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006:1:CD003476.
23. Sink KM, Holden KF, Yaffe K. Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia: a review of the evidence. JAMA. 2005;293(5):596-608.
24. Aisen PS, Cummings J, Schneider LS. Symptomatic and nonamyloid/tau based pharmacologic treatment for Alzheimer disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(3):a006395. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a006395.
25. Schneider LS, Tariot PN, Dagerman KS, et al; CATIE-AD Study Group. Effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic drugs in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(15):1525-1538.
26. Trifirò G, Sultana J, Spina E. Are the safety profiles of antipsychotic drugs used in dementia the same? An updated review of observational studies. Drug Saf. 2014;37(7):501-520.
27. Trifirò G, Gambassi G, Sen EF, et al. Association of community-acquired pneumonia with antipsychotic drug use in elderly patients: a nested case-control study. Ann Intern Med. 2010;152(7):418-425, W139-W140.
28. Sultana J, Trifirò G. Drug safety warnings: a message in a bottle. Analysis. 2008;179:438-446.
29. Liperoti R, Gambassi G, Lapane KL, et al. Cerebrovascular events among elderly nursing home patients treated with conventional or atypical antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(9):1090-1096.
30. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Public health advisory: deaths with antipsychotics in elderly patients with behavioral disturbances. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/postmarketdrugsafety information forpatientsandproviders/ucm053171. Updated August 16, 2013. Accessed October 20, 2017.
31. Wang PS, Schneeweiss S, Avorn J, et al. Risk of death in elderly users of conventional vs. atypical antipsychotic medications. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(22):2335-2341.
32. Kales HC, Valenstein M, Kim HM, et al. Mortality risk in patients with dementia treated with antipsychotics versus other psychiatric medications. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(10):1568-1576; quiz 1623.
33. Simoni-Wastila L, Ryder PT, Qian J, et al. Association of antipsychotic use with hospital events and mortality among medicare beneficiaries residing in long-term care facilities. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;17(5):417-427.
34. Raivio MM, Laurila JV, Strandberg TE, et al. Neither atypical nor conventional antipsychotics increase mortality or hospital admissions among elderly patients with dementia: a two-year prospective study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007;15(5):416-424.
35. Gill SS, Bronskill SE, Normand SL, et al. Antipsychotic drug use and mortality in older adults with dementia. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146(11):775-786.
36. Schneeweiss S, Setoguchi S, Brookhart A, et al. Risk of death associated with the use of conventional versus atypical antipsychotic drugs among elderly patients. CMAJ. 2007;176(5):627-632.
37. Kales HC, Kim HM, Zivin K, et al. Risk of mortality among individual antipsychotics in patients with dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(1):71-79.
38. Maust DT, Kim HM, Seyfried LS, et al. Antipsychotics, other psychotropics, and the risk of death in patients with dementia: number needed to harm. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(5):438-445.
39. Rhee Y, Csernansky JG, Emanuel LL, et al. Psychotropic medication burden and factors associated with antipsychotic use: an analysis of a population-based sample of community-dwelling older persons with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2011;59(11):2100-2107.
40. Kales HC, Zivin K, Kim HM, et al. Trends in antipsychotic use in dementia 1999-2007. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(2):190-197.
41. American Diabetes Association; American Psychiatric Association; American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists; North American Association for the Study of Obesity. Consensus development conference on antipsychotic drugs and obesity and diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(2):596-601.
42. Brodaty H, Ames D, Snowdon J, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of risperidone for the treatment of aggression, agitation, and psychosis of dementia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(2):134-143.
43. Wooltorton E. Risperidone (Risperdal): increased rate of cerebrovascular events in dementia trials. CMAJ. 2002;167(11):1269-1270.
44. United States Government Accountability Office. Antipsychotic drug use: HHS has initiatives to reduce use among older adults in nursing homes, but should expand efforts to other settings. http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/668221.pdf. Published January 2015. Accessed October 20, 2017.
45. Chen Y, Briesacher BA, Field TS, et al. Unexplained variation across US nursing homes in antipsychotic prescribing rates. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170(1):89-95.
46. Feng Z, Hirdes JP, Smith TF, et al. Use of physical restraints and antipsychotic medications in nursing homes: a cross-national study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;24(10):1110-1118.
47. Kamble P, Chen H, Sherer J, et al. Antipsychotic drug use among elderly nursing home residents in the United States. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2008;6(4):187-197.
48. Gellad WF, Aspinall SL, Handler SM, et al. Use of antipsychotics among older residents in VA nursing homes. Med Care. 2012;50(11):954-960.
49. Bonner A. Improving dementia care and reducing unnecessary use of antipsychotic medications in nursing homes. Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services. http://ltcombudsman.org/uploads/files/support/alice-bonner-slides.pdf. Published April 28, 2013. Accessed October 20, 2017.
50. Vasudev A, Shariff SZ, Liu K, et al. Trends in psychotropic dispensing among older adults with dementia living in long-term care facilities: 2004-2013. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;23(12):1259-1269.
51. Kales HC, Gitlin LN, Lyketsos CG, et al; Detroit Expert Panel on Assessment and Management of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Dementia. Management of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia in clinical settings: recommendations from a multidisciplinary expert panel. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014;62(4):762-769.
52. Andreasen NC, Liu D, Ziebell S, et al. Relapse duration, treatment intensity, and brain tissue loss in schizophrenia: a prospective longitudinal MRI study. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(6):609-615.
53. Mulsant BH. Challenges of the treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2014;22(4):317-320.

References

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2. Foebel A, Ballokova A, Wellens NI, et al. A retrospective, longitudinal study of factors associated with new antipsychotic medication use among recently admitted long-term care residents. BMC Geriatr. 2015;15:128.
3. Parsons C, Johnston S, Mathie E, et al. Potentially inappropriate prescribing in older people with dementia in care homes: a retrospective analysis. Drugs Aging. 2012;29(2):143-155.
4. Vidal X, Agustí A, Vallano A, et al; Potentially Inappropriate Prescription in Older Patients in Spain (PIPOPS) Investigators’ project. Elderly patients treated with psychotropic medicines admitted to hospital: associated characteristics and inappropriate use. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2016;72(6):755-764.
5. Caron L, Cottencin O, Lapeyre-Mestre M, et al. Off-label prescribing of antipsychotics in adults, children and elderly individuals: a systematic review of recent prescription trends. Curr Pharm Des. 2015;21(23):3280-3297.
6. Weintraub D, Chiang C, Kim HM, et al. Association of antipsychotic use with mortality risk in patients with parkinson disease. JAMA Neurol. 2016;73(5):535-541.
7. Lyketsos CG, Carrillo MC, Ryan JM, et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement. 2011;7(5):532-539.
8. Kales HC, Chen P, Blow FC, et al. Rates of clinical depression diagnosis, functional impairment, and nursing home placement in coexisting dementia and depression. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2005;13(6):441-449.
9. Yaffe K, Fox P, Newcomer R, et al. Patient and caregiver characteristics and nursing home placement in patients with dementia. JAMA. 2002;287(16):2090-2097.
10. Lopez OL, Becker JT, Chang YF, et al. The long-term effects of conventional and atypical antipsychotics in patients with probable Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(9):1051-1058.
11. Vilalta-Franch J, López-Pousa S, Calvó-Perxas L, et al. Psychosis of Alzheimer disease: prevalence, incidence, persistence, risk factors, and mortality. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2013;21(11):1135-1143.
12. Spalletta G, Musicco M, Padovani A, et al. Neuropsychiatric symptoms and syndromes in a large cohort of newly diagnosed, untreated patients with Alzheimer disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2010;18(11):1026-1035.
13. Steinberg M, Shao H, Zandi P, et al; Cache County Investigators. Point and 5-year period prevalence of neuropsychiatric symptoms in dementia: the Cache County Study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2008;23(2):170-177.
14. Finkel SI, Burns A. Behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD): a clinical and research update-introduction. International Psychogeriatrics. 2000;12:9-12.
15. Lyketsos CG. Neuropsychiatric symptoms (behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia) and the development of dementia treatments. Int Psychogeriatr. 2007;19(3):409-420.
16. Kunik ME, Snow AL, Davila JA, et al. Causes of aggressive behavior in patients with dementia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;71(9):1145-1152.
17. Reus VI, Fochtmann LJ, Eyler AE, et al. The American Psychiatric Association practice guideline on the use of antipsychotics to treat agitation or psychosis in patients with dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173(5):543-546.
18. Kales HC, Gitlin LN, Lyketsos CG. Assessment and management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. BMJ. 2015;350:h369. doi: 10.1136/bmj.h369.
19. Schneider LS, Pollock VE, Lyness SA. A metaanalysis of controlled trials of neuroleptic treatment in dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1990;38(5):553-563.
20. Yury CA, Fisher JE. Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for the treatment of behavioural problems in persons with dementia. Psychother Psychosom. 2007;76(4):213-218.
21. Schneider LS, Dagerman K, Insel PS. Efficacy and adverse effects of atypical antipsychotics for dementia: meta-analysis of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2006;14(3):191-210.
22. Ballard CG, Waite J. The effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics for aggression and psychosis in Alzheimer’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006:1:CD003476.
23. Sink KM, Holden KF, Yaffe K. Pharmacological treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia: a review of the evidence. JAMA. 2005;293(5):596-608.
24. Aisen PS, Cummings J, Schneider LS. Symptomatic and nonamyloid/tau based pharmacologic treatment for Alzheimer disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2012;2(3):a006395. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a006395.
25. Schneider LS, Tariot PN, Dagerman KS, et al; CATIE-AD Study Group. Effectiveness of atypical antipsychotic drugs in patients with Alzheimer’s disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(15):1525-1538.
26. Trifirò G, Sultana J, Spina E. Are the safety profiles of antipsychotic drugs used in dementia the same? An updated review of observational studies. Drug Saf. 2014;37(7):501-520.
27. Trifirò G, Gambassi G, Sen EF, et al. Association of community-acquired pneumonia with antipsychotic drug use in elderly patients: a nested case-control study. Ann Intern Med. 2010;152(7):418-425, W139-W140.
28. Sultana J, Trifirò G. Drug safety warnings: a message in a bottle. Analysis. 2008;179:438-446.
29. Liperoti R, Gambassi G, Lapane KL, et al. Cerebrovascular events among elderly nursing home patients treated with conventional or atypical antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(9):1090-1096.
30. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Public health advisory: deaths with antipsychotics in elderly patients with behavioral disturbances. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/postmarketdrugsafety information forpatientsandproviders/ucm053171. Updated August 16, 2013. Accessed October 20, 2017.
31. Wang PS, Schneeweiss S, Avorn J, et al. Risk of death in elderly users of conventional vs. atypical antipsychotic medications. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(22):2335-2341.
32. Kales HC, Valenstein M, Kim HM, et al. Mortality risk in patients with dementia treated with antipsychotics versus other psychiatric medications. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(10):1568-1576; quiz 1623.
33. Simoni-Wastila L, Ryder PT, Qian J, et al. Association of antipsychotic use with hospital events and mortality among medicare beneficiaries residing in long-term care facilities. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;17(5):417-427.
34. Raivio MM, Laurila JV, Strandberg TE, et al. Neither atypical nor conventional antipsychotics increase mortality or hospital admissions among elderly patients with dementia: a two-year prospective study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2007;15(5):416-424.
35. Gill SS, Bronskill SE, Normand SL, et al. Antipsychotic drug use and mortality in older adults with dementia. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146(11):775-786.
36. Schneeweiss S, Setoguchi S, Brookhart A, et al. Risk of death associated with the use of conventional versus atypical antipsychotic drugs among elderly patients. CMAJ. 2007;176(5):627-632.
37. Kales HC, Kim HM, Zivin K, et al. Risk of mortality among individual antipsychotics in patients with dementia. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169(1):71-79.
38. Maust DT, Kim HM, Seyfried LS, et al. Antipsychotics, other psychotropics, and the risk of death in patients with dementia: number needed to harm. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015;72(5):438-445.
39. Rhee Y, Csernansky JG, Emanuel LL, et al. Psychotropic medication burden and factors associated with antipsychotic use: an analysis of a population-based sample of community-dwelling older persons with dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2011;59(11):2100-2107.
40. Kales HC, Zivin K, Kim HM, et al. Trends in antipsychotic use in dementia 1999-2007. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011;68(2):190-197.
41. American Diabetes Association; American Psychiatric Association; American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists; North American Association for the Study of Obesity. Consensus development conference on antipsychotic drugs and obesity and diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(2):596-601.
42. Brodaty H, Ames D, Snowdon J, et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of risperidone for the treatment of aggression, agitation, and psychosis of dementia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(2):134-143.
43. Wooltorton E. Risperidone (Risperdal): increased rate of cerebrovascular events in dementia trials. CMAJ. 2002;167(11):1269-1270.
44. United States Government Accountability Office. Antipsychotic drug use: HHS has initiatives to reduce use among older adults in nursing homes, but should expand efforts to other settings. http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/668221.pdf. Published January 2015. Accessed October 20, 2017.
45. Chen Y, Briesacher BA, Field TS, et al. Unexplained variation across US nursing homes in antipsychotic prescribing rates. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170(1):89-95.
46. Feng Z, Hirdes JP, Smith TF, et al. Use of physical restraints and antipsychotic medications in nursing homes: a cross-national study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2009;24(10):1110-1118.
47. Kamble P, Chen H, Sherer J, et al. Antipsychotic drug use among elderly nursing home residents in the United States. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2008;6(4):187-197.
48. Gellad WF, Aspinall SL, Handler SM, et al. Use of antipsychotics among older residents in VA nursing homes. Med Care. 2012;50(11):954-960.
49. Bonner A. Improving dementia care and reducing unnecessary use of antipsychotic medications in nursing homes. Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services. http://ltcombudsman.org/uploads/files/support/alice-bonner-slides.pdf. Published April 28, 2013. Accessed October 20, 2017.
50. Vasudev A, Shariff SZ, Liu K, et al. Trends in psychotropic dispensing among older adults with dementia living in long-term care facilities: 2004-2013. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2015;23(12):1259-1269.
51. Kales HC, Gitlin LN, Lyketsos CG, et al; Detroit Expert Panel on Assessment and Management of Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Dementia. Management of neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia in clinical settings: recommendations from a multidisciplinary expert panel. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2014;62(4):762-769.
52. Andreasen NC, Liu D, Ziebell S, et al. Relapse duration, treatment intensity, and brain tissue loss in schizophrenia: a prospective longitudinal MRI study. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170(6):609-615.
53. Mulsant BH. Challenges of the treatment of neuropsychiatric symptoms associated with dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2014;22(4):317-320.

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December 2017
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December 2017
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Prescribing antipsychotics in geriatric patients: Focus on dementia
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Prescribing antipsychotics in geriatric patients: Focus on dementia
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