1. Wang JK, Nauss LA, Thomas JE. Pain relief by intrathecally applied morphine in man. Anesthesiology. 1979;50:149-151.
2. Hayek SM, Hanes MC. Intrathecal therapy for chronic pain: current trends and future needs. Curr Pain Headache Rep . 2014;18:338.
3. Krames ES. Intraspinal opioid therapy for chronic nonmalignant pain: current practice and clinical guidelines. J Pain Symptom Manage . 1996;11:333-352.
4. Smith TJ, Staats PS, Deer T, et al; Implantable Drug Delivery Systems Study Group. Randomized clinical trial of an implantable drug delivery system compared with comprehensive medical management for refractory cancer pain: impact on pain, drug-related toxicity, and survival. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:4040-4049.
5. Rauck RL, Cherry D, Boyer MF, et al. Long-term intrathecal opioid therapy with a patient-activated, implanted delivery system for the treatment of refractory cancer pain. J Pain. 2003;4:441-447.
6. Burton AW, Rajagopal A, Shah HN, et al. Epidural and intrathecal analgesia is effective in treating refractory cancer pain. Pain Med . 2004;5:239-247.
7. Hassenbusch SJ. Cost modeling for alternate routes of administration of opioids for cancer pain. Oncology. 1999;13(5 suppl 2):S63-S67.
8. Thimineur MA, Kravitz E, Vodapally MS. Intrathecal opioid treatment for chronic non-malignant pain: a 3-year prospective study. Pain. 2004;109:242-249.
9. Gerber HR. Intrathecal morphine for chronic benign pain. Best Pract Res Clin Anesthesiol . 2003;17:429-442.
10. Tuner JA, Sears JM, Loeser JD. Programmable intrathecal opioid delivery systems for chronic noncancer pain: a systematic review of effectiveness and complications. Clin J Pain. 2007;23:180-195.
11. Brown J, Klapow J, Doleys D, et al. Disease-specific and generic health outcomes: a model for the evaluation of long-term intrathecal opioid therapy in noncancer low back pain patients. Clin J Pain . 1999;15:122-131.
12. Webster LR, Webster RM. Predicting aberrant behaviors in opioid-treated patients: preliminary validation of the Opioid Risk Tool. Pain Med. 2006;6:432-442.
13. Ahmed SU, Martin NM, Chang Y. Patient selection and trial methods for intraspinal drug delivery for chronic pain: a national survey. Neuromodulation . 2005;8:112-120.
14. Abs R, Verhelst J, Maeyaert J, et al. Endocrine consequences of long-term intrathecal administration of opioids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:2215-2222.
15. Coffey RJ, Owens ML, Broste SK, et al. Mortality associated with implantation and management of intrathecal opioid drug infusion systems to treat noncancer pain. Anesthesiology . 2009;111:881-891.
16. Sjöberg M, Nitescu P, Appelgren L, et al. Long-term intrathecal morphine and bupivacaine in patients with refractory cancer pain. Results from a morphine:bupivacaine dose regimen of 0.5:4.75 mg/ml. Anesthesiology. 1994;80:284-297.
17. Sjöberg M, Appelgen L, Einarsson S, et al. Long-term intrathecal morphine and bupivacaine in “refractory” cancer pain. I. Results from the first series of 52 patients. Acta Anaesthsiol Scand. 1991;35:30-43.
18. Van Dongen RT, Crul BJ, De Bock M. Long-term intrathecal infusion of morphine and morphine/bupivacaine mixtures in the treatment of cancer pain: a retrospective analysis of 51 cases. Pain. 1993;55:119-123.
19. van Dongen RT, Crul BJ, van Egmond J. Intrathecal coadministration of bupivacaine diminishes morphine dose progression during long-term intrathecal infusion in cancer patients. Clin J Pain. 1999;15:166-172.
20. Deer TR, Caraway DL, Kim CK, et al. Clinical experience with intrathecal bupivacaine in combination with opioid for the treatment of chronic pain related to failed back surgery syndrome and metastatic cancer pain of the spine. Spine J. 2002;2:274-278.
21. Krames ES, Lanning RM. Intrathecal infusional analgesia for nonmalignant pain: analgesic efficacy of intrathecal opioid with or without bupivacaine. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1993;8:539-548.
22. Rainov NG, Heidecke V, Burkert W. Long-term intrathecal infusion of drug combinations for chronic back and leg pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2001;22:862-871.
23. Veizi IE, Hayek SM, Narouze S, et al. Combination of intrathecal opioids with bupivacaine attenuates opioid dose escalation in chronic noncancer pain patients. Pain Med . 2011;12:1481-1489.
24. Mironer YE, Haasis JC, Chapple I, et al. Efficacy and safety of intrathecal opioid/bupivacaine mixture in chronic nonmalignant pain: A double blind, randomized, crossover, multicenter study by the National Forum of Independent Pain Clinicians (NFIPC). Neuromodulation . 2002;5:208-213.
25. Staats PS, Yearwood T, Charapata SG, et al. Intrathecal ziconotide in the treatment of refractory pain in patients with cancer or AIDS: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291:63-70.
26. Rauck RL, Wallace MS, Leong MS, et al; Ziconotide 301 Study Group. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of intrathecal ziconotide in adults with severe chronic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2006;31:393-406.
27. Wallace MS, Rauck R, Fisher R, et al; Ziconotide 98-022 Study Group. Intrathecal ziconotide for severe chronic pain: safety and tolerability results of an open-label, long-term trial. Anesth Analg . 2008;106:628-637.
28. Maier C, Gockel HH, Gruhn K, et al. Increased risk of suicide under intrathecal ziconotide treatment? - a warning. Pain . 2011;152:235-237.
29. Ackerman LL, Follett KA, Rosenquist RW. Long-term outcomes during treatment of chronic pain with intrathecal clonidine or clonidine/opioid combinations. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2003;26:668-677.
30. Tarrico M, Adone R, Pagliacci C, et al. Pharmacological interventions for spasticity following spinal cord injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2000;(2):CD001131.
31. van Hilten BJ, van de Beek WT, Hoff JI, et al. Intrathecal baclofen for the treatment of dystonia in patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:625-630.
32. Herman RM, D’Luzansky SC, Ippolito R. Intrathecal baclofen suppresses central pain in patients with spinal lesions. A pilot study. Clin J Pain. 1992;8:338-345.
33. Deer T, Prager J, Levy R, et al. Polyanalgesic consensus conference 2012: recommendations for the management of pain by intrathecal (intraspinal) drug delivery: report of an interdisciplinary expert panel. Neuromodulation . 2012;15:436-466.
34. Yaksh TL, Coffey RJ. Spinal opiate toxicity. In: Proceedings of American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medication Conference; November 18-21, 2004; Phoenix, AZ.
35. Levy MH. Pharmacologic management of cancer pain. Semin Oncol . 1994;21:718-739.
36. Cousins MJ, Mather LE. Intrathecal and epidural administration of opioids. Anesthesiology . 1984;61:276-310.
37. Zeppetella G, O’Doherty CA, Collins S. Prevalence and characteristics of breakthrough pain in patients with non-malignant terminal disease admitted to a hospice. Palliat Med. 2001;15:243-246.
38. Portenoy RK, Hagen NA. Breakthrough pain: definition, prevalence and characteristics. Pain . 1990;41:273-281.
39. Hanks GW, Forbes K. Opioid responsiveness. Acta Anaesthesiol Scan. 1997;41:154-158.
40. Paice JA, Penn RD, Ryan WG. Altered sexual function and decreased testosterone in patients receiving intraspinal opioids. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1994;9:126-131.
41. Brennan MJ. The effect of opioid therapy on endocrine function. Am J Med . 2013;126(3 suppl 1):S12-S18.
42. Beard S, Hunn A. Wight J. Treatments for spasticity and pain in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review. Health Technol Assess. 2003;7:iii,ix-x,1-111.
43. Kamran S, Wright BD. Complications of intrathecal drug delivery systems. Neuromodulation . 2001;4:111-115.
44. Follett KA, Naumann CP. A prospective study of catheter-related complications of intrathecal drug delivery systems. J Pain Symptom Manage . 2000;19:209-215.
45. Follett KA, Burchiel K, Deer T, et al. Prevention of intrathecal drug delivery catheter-related complications. Neuromodulation . 2003;6:32-41.
46. Paice JA, Penn RD, Shott S. Intraspinal morphine for chronic pain: a retrospective, multicenter study. J Pain Symptom Manage . 1996;11:71-80.
47. Miele VJ, Price KO, Bloomfield S, et al. A review of intrathecal morphine therapy related granulomas. Eur J Pain . 2006;10:251-261.
48. Hayek SM. Intrathecal “microdosing”: reality or artifact? Pain Med . 2012;13:1664-1665.
49. Grider JS, Harned ME, Etscheidt MA. Patient selection and outcomes using a low-dose intrathecal opioid trialing method for chronic nonmalignant pain. Pain Physician . 2011;14:343-351.
