Plain anteroposterior, lateral, and axillary radiographs of the shoulder should be obtained for all patients having an orthopedic examination for shoulder pain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound are the advanced modalities most commonly used for diagnostic imaging. These modalities should be considered in conjunction with, not in place of, a comprehensive history and physical examination.
The literature suggests MRI fails to accurately detect many LHBT lesions (Table).29-37
MRI has sensitivity of 9% to 89% for LHBT pathology29-37 and 38% to 98% for SLAP pathology.35,38-41 The wide range of reported sensitivity and specificity might be attributed to the varying criteria for what constitutes a BLC lesion. Some authors include biceps chondromalacia, dynamic incarceration of LHBT, and extra-articular bicipital tunnel lesions, while others historically have included only intra-articular LHBT lesions that can be directly visualized arthroscopically.
In their retrospective review of 277 shoulders with chronic refractory BLC symptoms treated with subdeltoid transfer of the LHBT to the conjoint tendon, Taylor and colleagues30 reported MRI was more sensitive for inside BLC lesions than for junctional or bicipital tunnel lesions (77% vs 43% and 50%, respectively).
Treatment Options for Biceps-Labrum Complex Lesions
A diagnosis of BLC disease warrants a trial of conservative (nonoperative) management for at least 3 months. Many patients improve with activity modification, use of oral anti-inflammatory medication, and structured physical therapy focused on dynamic stabilizers and range of motion. If pain persists, local anesthetic and corticosteroid can be injected under ultrasound guidance into the bicipital tunnel; this injection has the advantage of being both diagnostic and therapeutic. Hashiuchi and colleagues42 found ultrasound-guided injections are 87% successful in achieving intra-sheath placement (injections without ultrasound guidance are only 27% successful).
If the 3-month trial of conservative management fails, surgical intervention should be considered. The goal in treating BLC pain is to maximize clinical function and alleviate pain in a predictable manner while minimizing technical demands and morbidity. A singular solution has not been identified. Furthermore, 3 systematic reviews failed to identify a difference between the most commonly used techniques, biceps tenodesis and tenotomy.43-45 These reviews grouped all tenotomy procedures together and compared them with all tenodesis procedures. A limitation of these systematic reviews is that they did not differentiate tenodesis techniques. We prefer to classify techniques according to whether or not they decompress zones 1 and 2 of the bicipital tunnel.
Bicipital Tunnel Nondecompressing Techniques
Release of the biceps tendon, a biceps tenotomy, is a simple procedure that potentially avoids open surgery and provides patients with a quick return to activity. Disadvantages of tenotomy include cosmetic (Popeye) deformity after surgery, potential cramping and fatigue, and biomechanical changes in the humeral head,46-48 particularly among patients younger than 65 years. High rates of revision after tenotomy have been reported.43,49 Incomplete retraction of the LHBT and/or residual synovium may be responsible for refractory pain following biceps tenotomy.49 We hypothesize that failure of tenotomy may be related to unaddressed bicipital tunnel disease.
Proximal nondecompressing tenodesis techniques may be performed either on soft tissue in the interval or rotator cuff or on bone at the articular margin or within zone 1 of the bicipital tunnel.50-52 These techniques can be performed with standard glenohumeral arthroscopy and generally are fast and well tolerated and have limited operative morbidity. Advantages of these techniques over simple tenotomy are lower rates of cosmetic deformity and lower rates of cramping and fatigue pain, likely resulting from maintenance of the muscle tension relationship of the LHBT. Disadvantages of proximal tenodesis techniques include introduction of hardware for bony fixation, longer postoperative rehabilitation to protect repairs, and failure to address hidden bicipital tunnel disease. Furthermore, the rate of stiffness in patients who undergo proximal tenodesis without decompression of the bicipital tunnel may be as high as 18%.53
Bicipital Tunnel Decompressing Techniques
Surgical techniques that decompress the bicipital tunnel include proximal techniques that release the bicipital sheath within zones 1 and 2 of the bicipital tunnel (to the level of the proximal margin of the pectoralis major tendon) and certain arthroscopic suprapectoral techniques,54 open subpectoral tenodeses,55-57 and arthroscopic transfer of the LHBT to the conjoint tendon.58,59
Open subpectoral tenodesis techniques have the advantage of maintaining the length-tension relationship of the LHBT and preventing Popeye deformity. However, these techniques require making an incision near the axilla, which may introduce an unnecessary source of infection. Furthermore, open subpectoral tenodesis requires drilling the humerus and placing a screw for bony fixation of the LHBT, which can create a risk of neurovascular injury, given the proximity of neurovascular structures,60-62 and humeral shaft fracture, particularly in athletes.63,64Our preferred method is transfer of the LHBT to the conjoint tendon (Figure 3).59
The subdeltoid space is a large, relatively avascular fascial plane bounded superiorly by the acromion and coracoacromial ligament, medially by the coracoid and conjoint tendon, inferiorly by the musculotendinous insertion of the pectoralis major, and laterally by the border of the humerus.65 After the LHBT is released from the superior labrum, it is transferred to the subdeltoid space and sutured to the conjoint tendon in side-to-side fashion with nonabsorbable sutures.58,59 This technique allows for isometric tensioning of the LHBT, which preserves the strength of the biceps muscle, and fixation of soft tissue to soft tissue obviates the need for bone tunnels, mitigating fracture risk. A histologic study that compared healing between LHBT tenodesis with bone and soft-tissue transfer to the conjoint tendon found a more robust response of tenomodulin in the soft-tissue transfer, suggesting tendon regeneration in this technique.66 Perhaps the most significant advantage is the ability of this approach to effectively decompress the bicipital tunnel. Early-term results were promising, and recent midterm results demonstrated durability of clinical outcomes.58,59Sanders and colleagues49 compared revision rates of biceps procedures and found a 6.8% rate for techniques that released the biceps sheath and a 20.6% rate for operations in which the sheath was not released. Subsequent meta-analysis of 30 studies (1881 patients) found improved Constant scores in the cohort that underwent bicipital tunnel decompression in comparison with the cohort that did not have the bicipital tunnel decompressed, but there was no significant difference in UCLA (University of California Los Angeles) scores between cohorts.67
In light of recent literature that confirms the prevalence of bicipital tunnel lesions that have been overlooked, and the power of physical examination, we have proposed an evidence-based approach to diagnosing and managing BLC disease (Figure 4).
Am J Orthop. 2016;45(7):E503-E511. Copyright Frontline Medical Communications Inc. 2016. All rights reserved.
