Pearls

With the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on the rise¹ and a surge in prescriptions to treat the disorder leading to stimulant shortages,² ensuring that patients are appropriately evaluated for ADHD is more critical than ever. ADHD is a clinical diagnosis that can be established by clinical interview, although the results of neuropsychological testing and collateral information from family members are helpful. Assessing adults for ADHD can be challenging when they appear to want to convince the clinician that they have the disorder. In this article, I provide tips to help you accurately diagnose ADHD in adult patients.

Use an ADHD symptom scale

An ADHD symptom checklist, such as the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, is an effective tool to establish the presence of ADHD symptoms. A patient can complete this self-assessment tool before their visit, and you can use the results as a springboard to ask them about ADHD symptoms. It is important to elicit specific examples of the ADHD symptoms the patient reports, and to understand how these symptoms affect their functioning and quality of life.

Review the prescription drug monitoring program

Review your state’s prescription drug monitoring program to explore the patient’s prior and current prescriptions of stimulants and other controlled substances. Discern if, when, and by whom a patient was previously treated for ADHD, and rule out the rare possibility that the patient has obtained multiple prescriptions for controlled substances from multiple clinicians, which suggests the patient may have a substance use disorder.

Begin the assessment at your initial contact with the patient

How patients present on an initial screening call or how they compose emails can reveal clues about their level of organization and overall executive functioning. The way patients complete intake forms (eg, using a concise vs a meandering writing style) as well as their punctuality when presenting to appointments can also be telling.

Conduct a mental status examination

Patients can have difficulty focusing and completing tasks for reasons other than having ADHD. A mental status examination can sometimes provide objective clues that an individual has ADHD. A digressive thought process, visible physical restlessness, and instances of a patient interrupting the evaluator are suggestive of ADHD, although all these symptoms can be present in other conditions (eg, mania). However, signs of ADHD in the mental status examination do not confirm an ADHD diagnosis, nor does their absence rule it out.

Maintain an appropriate diagnostic threshold

Per DSM-5, an ADHD diagnosis requires that the symptoms cause a significant impairment in functioning.³ It is up to the clinician to determine if this threshold is met. It is imperative to thoughtfully consider this because stimulants are first-line treatment for ADHD and are commonly misused. Psychiatrists are usually motivated to please their patients in order to maintain them as patients and develop a positive therapeutic relationship, which improves outcomes.⁴ However, it is important to demonstrate integrity, provide an accurate diagnosis, and not be unduly swayed by a patient’s wish to receive an ADHD diagnosis. If you sense that a prospective patient is hoping they will receive an ADHD diagnosis and be prescribed a stimulant, it may be prudent to emphasize that the patient will be assessed for multiple mental health conditions, including ADHD, and that treatment will depend on the outcome of the evaluation.

With the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on the rise¹ and a surge in prescriptions to treat the disorder leading to stimulant shortages,² ensuring that patients are appropriately evaluated for ADHD is more critical than ever. ADHD is a clinical diagnosis that can be established by clinical interview, although the results of neuropsychological testing and collateral information from family members are helpful. Assessing adults for ADHD can be challenging when they appear to want to convince the clinician that they have the disorder. In this article, I provide tips to help you accurately diagnose ADHD in adult patients.

Use an ADHD symptom scale

An ADHD symptom checklist, such as the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, is an effective tool to establish the presence of ADHD symptoms. A patient can complete this self-assessment tool before their visit, and you can use the results as a springboard to ask them about ADHD symptoms. It is important to elicit specific examples of the ADHD symptoms the patient reports, and to understand how these symptoms affect their functioning and quality of life.

Review the prescription drug monitoring program

Review your state’s prescription drug monitoring program to explore the patient’s prior and current prescriptions of stimulants and other controlled substances. Discern if, when, and by whom a patient was previously treated for ADHD, and rule out the rare possibility that the patient has obtained multiple prescriptions for controlled substances from multiple clinicians, which suggests the patient may have a substance use disorder.

Begin the assessment at your initial contact with the patient

How patients present on an initial screening call or how they compose emails can reveal clues about their level of organization and overall executive functioning. The way patients complete intake forms (eg, using a concise vs a meandering writing style) as well as their punctuality when presenting to appointments can also be telling.

Conduct a mental status examination

Patients can have difficulty focusing and completing tasks for reasons other than having ADHD. A mental status examination can sometimes provide objective clues that an individual has ADHD. A digressive thought process, visible physical restlessness, and instances of a patient interrupting the evaluator are suggestive of ADHD, although all these symptoms can be present in other conditions (eg, mania). However, signs of ADHD in the mental status examination do not confirm an ADHD diagnosis, nor does their absence rule it out.

Maintain an appropriate diagnostic threshold

Per DSM-5, an ADHD diagnosis requires that the symptoms cause a significant impairment in functioning.³ It is up to the clinician to determine if this threshold is met. It is imperative to thoughtfully consider this because stimulants are first-line treatment for ADHD and are commonly misused. Psychiatrists are usually motivated to please their patients in order to maintain them as patients and develop a positive therapeutic relationship, which improves outcomes.⁴ However, it is important to demonstrate integrity, provide an accurate diagnosis, and not be unduly swayed by a patient’s wish to receive an ADHD diagnosis. If you sense that a prospective patient is hoping they will receive an ADHD diagnosis and be prescribed a stimulant, it may be prudent to emphasize that the patient will be assessed for multiple mental health conditions, including ADHD, and that treatment will depend on the outcome of the evaluation.

With the diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) on the rise¹ and a surge in prescriptions to treat the disorder leading to stimulant shortages,² ensuring that patients are appropriately evaluated for ADHD is more critical than ever. ADHD is a clinical diagnosis that can be established by clinical interview, although the results of neuropsychological testing and collateral information from family members are helpful. Assessing adults for ADHD can be challenging when they appear to want to convince the clinician that they have the disorder. In this article, I provide tips to help you accurately diagnose ADHD in adult patients.

Use an ADHD symptom scale

An ADHD symptom checklist, such as the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, is an effective tool to establish the presence of ADHD symptoms. A patient can complete this self-assessment tool before their visit, and you can use the results as a springboard to ask them about ADHD symptoms. It is important to elicit specific examples of the ADHD symptoms the patient reports, and to understand how these symptoms affect their functioning and quality of life.

Review the prescription drug monitoring program

Review your state’s prescription drug monitoring program to explore the patient’s prior and current prescriptions of stimulants and other controlled substances. Discern if, when, and by whom a patient was previously treated for ADHD, and rule out the rare possibility that the patient has obtained multiple prescriptions for controlled substances from multiple clinicians, which suggests the patient may have a substance use disorder.

Begin the assessment at your initial contact with the patient

How patients present on an initial screening call or how they compose emails can reveal clues about their level of organization and overall executive functioning. The way patients complete intake forms (eg, using a concise vs a meandering writing style) as well as their punctuality when presenting to appointments can also be telling.

Conduct a mental status examination

Patients can have difficulty focusing and completing tasks for reasons other than having ADHD. A mental status examination can sometimes provide objective clues that an individual has ADHD. A digressive thought process, visible physical restlessness, and instances of a patient interrupting the evaluator are suggestive of ADHD, although all these symptoms can be present in other conditions (eg, mania). However, signs of ADHD in the mental status examination do not confirm an ADHD diagnosis, nor does their absence rule it out.

Maintain an appropriate diagnostic threshold

Per DSM-5, an ADHD diagnosis requires that the symptoms cause a significant impairment in functioning.³ It is up to the clinician to determine if this threshold is met. It is imperative to thoughtfully consider this because stimulants are first-line treatment for ADHD and are commonly misused. Psychiatrists are usually motivated to please their patients in order to maintain them as patients and develop a positive therapeutic relationship, which improves outcomes.⁴ However, it is important to demonstrate integrity, provide an accurate diagnosis, and not be unduly swayed by a patient’s wish to receive an ADHD diagnosis. If you sense that a prospective patient is hoping they will receive an ADHD diagnosis and be prescribed a stimulant, it may be prudent to emphasize that the patient will be assessed for multiple mental health conditions, including ADHD, and that treatment will depend on the outcome of the evaluation.

Childbirth-related posttraumatic stress disorder (CB-PTSD) is a form of PTSD that can develop related to trauma surrounding the events of giving birth. It affects approximately 5% of women after any birth, which is similar to the rate of PTSD after experiencing a natural disaster.¹ Up to 17% of women may have posttraumatic symptoms in the postpartum period.¹ Despite the high prevalence of CB-PTSD, many psychiatric clinicians have not incorporated screening for and management of CB-PTSD into their practice.

This is partly because childbirth has been conceptualized as a “stressful but positive life event.”² Historically, childbirth was not recognized as a traumatic event; for example, in DSM-III-R, the criteria for trauma in PTSD required an event outside the range of usual human experience, and childbirth was implicitly excluded as being too common to be traumatic. In the past decade, this clinical phenomenon has been more formally recognized and studied.²

CB-PTSD presents with symptoms similar to those of other forms of PTSD, with some nuances, as outlined in Table 1.³ Avoidance can be the predominant symptom; this can affect mothers’ engagement in postnatal care and is a major risk factor for postpartum depression.³

Many risk factors in the peripartum period can impact the development of CB-PTSD (Table 2³). The most significant risk factor is whether the patient views the delivery of their baby as a subjectively negative experience, regardless of the presence or lack of peripartum complications.¹ However, parents of infants who require treatment in a neonatal intensive care unit and women who require emergency medical treatment following delivery are at higher risk.

Screening and treatment

Ideally, every woman should be screened for CB-PTSD by their psychiatrist or obstetrician during a postpartum visit at least 1 month after delivery. In particular, high-risk populations and women with subjectively negative birth experiences should be screened, as well as women with postpartum depression that may have been precipitated or perpetuated by a traumatic experience. The City Birth Trauma Scale is a free 31-item self-report scale that can be used for such screening. It addresses both general and birth-related symptoms and is validated in multiple languages.⁴

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and prazosin may be helpful for symptomatic treatment of CB-PTSD. Ongoing research studying the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for CB-PTSD has yielded promising results but is limited in its generalizability.

Many women who develop CB-PTSD choose to get pregnant again. Psychiatrists can apply the principles of trauma-informed care and collaborate with obstetric and pediatric physicians to reduce the risk of retraumatization. It is critical to identify at-risk women and educate and prepare them for their next delivery experience. By focusing on communication, informed consent, and emotional support, we can do our best to prevent the recurrence of CB-PTSD.

Childbirth-related posttraumatic stress disorder (CB-PTSD) is a form of PTSD that can develop related to trauma surrounding the events of giving birth. It affects approximately 5% of women after any birth, which is similar to the rate of PTSD after experiencing a natural disaster.¹ Up to 17% of women may have posttraumatic symptoms in the postpartum period.¹ Despite the high prevalence of CB-PTSD, many psychiatric clinicians have not incorporated screening for and management of CB-PTSD into their practice.

This is partly because childbirth has been conceptualized as a “stressful but positive life event.”² Historically, childbirth was not recognized as a traumatic event; for example, in DSM-III-R, the criteria for trauma in PTSD required an event outside the range of usual human experience, and childbirth was implicitly excluded as being too common to be traumatic. In the past decade, this clinical phenomenon has been more formally recognized and studied.²

CB-PTSD presents with symptoms similar to those of other forms of PTSD, with some nuances, as outlined in Table 1.³ Avoidance can be the predominant symptom; this can affect mothers’ engagement in postnatal care and is a major risk factor for postpartum depression.³

Many risk factors in the peripartum period can impact the development of CB-PTSD (Table 2³). The most significant risk factor is whether the patient views the delivery of their baby as a subjectively negative experience, regardless of the presence or lack of peripartum complications.¹ However, parents of infants who require treatment in a neonatal intensive care unit and women who require emergency medical treatment following delivery are at higher risk.

Screening and treatment

Ideally, every woman should be screened for CB-PTSD by their psychiatrist or obstetrician during a postpartum visit at least 1 month after delivery. In particular, high-risk populations and women with subjectively negative birth experiences should be screened, as well as women with postpartum depression that may have been precipitated or perpetuated by a traumatic experience. The City Birth Trauma Scale is a free 31-item self-report scale that can be used for such screening. It addresses both general and birth-related symptoms and is validated in multiple languages.⁴

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and prazosin may be helpful for symptomatic treatment of CB-PTSD. Ongoing research studying the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for CB-PTSD has yielded promising results but is limited in its generalizability.

Many women who develop CB-PTSD choose to get pregnant again. Psychiatrists can apply the principles of trauma-informed care and collaborate with obstetric and pediatric physicians to reduce the risk of retraumatization. It is critical to identify at-risk women and educate and prepare them for their next delivery experience. By focusing on communication, informed consent, and emotional support, we can do our best to prevent the recurrence of CB-PTSD.

Childbirth-related posttraumatic stress disorder (CB-PTSD) is a form of PTSD that can develop related to trauma surrounding the events of giving birth. It affects approximately 5% of women after any birth, which is similar to the rate of PTSD after experiencing a natural disaster.¹ Up to 17% of women may have posttraumatic symptoms in the postpartum period.¹ Despite the high prevalence of CB-PTSD, many psychiatric clinicians have not incorporated screening for and management of CB-PTSD into their practice.

This is partly because childbirth has been conceptualized as a “stressful but positive life event.”² Historically, childbirth was not recognized as a traumatic event; for example, in DSM-III-R, the criteria for trauma in PTSD required an event outside the range of usual human experience, and childbirth was implicitly excluded as being too common to be traumatic. In the past decade, this clinical phenomenon has been more formally recognized and studied.²

CB-PTSD presents with symptoms similar to those of other forms of PTSD, with some nuances, as outlined in Table 1.³ Avoidance can be the predominant symptom; this can affect mothers’ engagement in postnatal care and is a major risk factor for postpartum depression.³

Many risk factors in the peripartum period can impact the development of CB-PTSD (Table 2³). The most significant risk factor is whether the patient views the delivery of their baby as a subjectively negative experience, regardless of the presence or lack of peripartum complications.¹ However, parents of infants who require treatment in a neonatal intensive care unit and women who require emergency medical treatment following delivery are at higher risk.

Screening and treatment

Ideally, every woman should be screened for CB-PTSD by their psychiatrist or obstetrician during a postpartum visit at least 1 month after delivery. In particular, high-risk populations and women with subjectively negative birth experiences should be screened, as well as women with postpartum depression that may have been precipitated or perpetuated by a traumatic experience. The City Birth Trauma Scale is a free 31-item self-report scale that can be used for such screening. It addresses both general and birth-related symptoms and is validated in multiple languages.⁴

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and prazosin may be helpful for symptomatic treatment of CB-PTSD. Ongoing research studying the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral therapy and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for CB-PTSD has yielded promising results but is limited in its generalizability.

Many women who develop CB-PTSD choose to get pregnant again. Psychiatrists can apply the principles of trauma-informed care and collaborate with obstetric and pediatric physicians to reduce the risk of retraumatization. It is critical to identify at-risk women and educate and prepare them for their next delivery experience. By focusing on communication, informed consent, and emotional support, we can do our best to prevent the recurrence of CB-PTSD.

Perinatal psychiatry focuses on the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of mental health disorders during the preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum periods. Mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder are the most common mental health conditions that arise during the perinatal period.¹ Mediating factors include hormone fluctuations, sleep deprivation, trauma exposure, financial stress, having a history of psychiatric illness, and factors related to newborn care.

During the perinatal period, a comprehensive psychiatric interview is crucial. Effective screening and identification of maternal mental health conditions necessitate more than merely checking off boxes on a questionnaire. It requires compassionate, informed, and individualized conversations between physicians and their patients.

In addition to asking about pertinent positive and negative psychiatric symptoms, the following screening questions could be asked during a structured interview to identify perinatal issues during pregnancy and the postpartum period.

During pregnancy

• How do you feel about your pregnancy?
• Was this pregnancy planned or unplanned, desired or not?
• Was fertility treatment needed or used?
• Did you think about stopping the pregnancy? If so, was your decision influenced by laws that restrict abortion in your state?
• Do you feel connected to the fetus?
• Do you have a room or crib at home for the baby? A car seat? Clothing? Baby supplies?
• Are you planning on breastfeeding?
• Do you have thoughts on future desired fertility and/or contraception?
• Who is your support system at home?
• How is your relationship with the baby’s father?
• How is the baby’s father’s mental well-being?
• Have you been subject to any abuse, intimate partner violence, or neglect?
• Are your other children being taken care of properly? What is the plan for them during delivery days at the hospital?

During the postpartum period

• Was your baby born prematurely?
• Did you have a vaginal or cesarean delivery?
• Did you encounter any delivery complications?
• Did you see the baby after the delivery?
• Do you feel connected to or able to bond with the baby?
• Do you have access to maternity leave from work?
• Have you had scary or upsetting thoughts about hurting your baby?
• Do you have any concerns about your treatment plan, such as medication use?
• In case of an emergency, are you aware of perinatal psychiatry resources in your area or the national maternal mental health hotline (833-852-6262)?

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists clinical practice guidelines recommend that clinicians conduct depression and anxiety screening at least once during the perinatal period by using a standardized, validated tool.² Psychiatry residents should receive adequate guidance and education about perinatal psychiatric evaluation, risk assessment, and treatment counseling. Early detection of mental health symptoms allows for early referral, close surveillance during episodes of vulnerability, and better access to mental health care during the perinatal period.

Perinatal psychiatry focuses on the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of mental health disorders during the preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum periods. Mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder are the most common mental health conditions that arise during the perinatal period.¹ Mediating factors include hormone fluctuations, sleep deprivation, trauma exposure, financial stress, having a history of psychiatric illness, and factors related to newborn care.

During the perinatal period, a comprehensive psychiatric interview is crucial. Effective screening and identification of maternal mental health conditions necessitate more than merely checking off boxes on a questionnaire. It requires compassionate, informed, and individualized conversations between physicians and their patients.

In addition to asking about pertinent positive and negative psychiatric symptoms, the following screening questions could be asked during a structured interview to identify perinatal issues during pregnancy and the postpartum period.

During pregnancy

• How do you feel about your pregnancy?
• Was this pregnancy planned or unplanned, desired or not?
• Was fertility treatment needed or used?
• Did you think about stopping the pregnancy? If so, was your decision influenced by laws that restrict abortion in your state?
• Do you feel connected to the fetus?
• Do you have a room or crib at home for the baby? A car seat? Clothing? Baby supplies?
• Are you planning on breastfeeding?
• Do you have thoughts on future desired fertility and/or contraception?
• Who is your support system at home?
• How is your relationship with the baby’s father?
• How is the baby’s father’s mental well-being?
• Have you been subject to any abuse, intimate partner violence, or neglect?
• Are your other children being taken care of properly? What is the plan for them during delivery days at the hospital?

During the postpartum period

• Was your baby born prematurely?
• Did you have a vaginal or cesarean delivery?
• Did you encounter any delivery complications?
• Did you see the baby after the delivery?
• Do you feel connected to or able to bond with the baby?
• Do you have access to maternity leave from work?
• Have you had scary or upsetting thoughts about hurting your baby?
• Do you have any concerns about your treatment plan, such as medication use?
• In case of an emergency, are you aware of perinatal psychiatry resources in your area or the national maternal mental health hotline (833-852-6262)?

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists clinical practice guidelines recommend that clinicians conduct depression and anxiety screening at least once during the perinatal period by using a standardized, validated tool.² Psychiatry residents should receive adequate guidance and education about perinatal psychiatric evaluation, risk assessment, and treatment counseling. Early detection of mental health symptoms allows for early referral, close surveillance during episodes of vulnerability, and better access to mental health care during the perinatal period.

Perinatal psychiatry focuses on the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of mental health disorders during the preconception, pregnancy, and postpartum periods. Mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and posttraumatic stress disorder are the most common mental health conditions that arise during the perinatal period.¹ Mediating factors include hormone fluctuations, sleep deprivation, trauma exposure, financial stress, having a history of psychiatric illness, and factors related to newborn care.

During the perinatal period, a comprehensive psychiatric interview is crucial. Effective screening and identification of maternal mental health conditions necessitate more than merely checking off boxes on a questionnaire. It requires compassionate, informed, and individualized conversations between physicians and their patients.

In addition to asking about pertinent positive and negative psychiatric symptoms, the following screening questions could be asked during a structured interview to identify perinatal issues during pregnancy and the postpartum period.

During pregnancy

• How do you feel about your pregnancy?
• Was this pregnancy planned or unplanned, desired or not?
• Was fertility treatment needed or used?
• Did you think about stopping the pregnancy? If so, was your decision influenced by laws that restrict abortion in your state?
• Do you feel connected to the fetus?
• Do you have a room or crib at home for the baby? A car seat? Clothing? Baby supplies?
• Are you planning on breastfeeding?
• Do you have thoughts on future desired fertility and/or contraception?
• Who is your support system at home?
• How is your relationship with the baby’s father?
• How is the baby’s father’s mental well-being?
• Have you been subject to any abuse, intimate partner violence, or neglect?
• Are your other children being taken care of properly? What is the plan for them during delivery days at the hospital?

During the postpartum period

• Was your baby born prematurely?
• Did you have a vaginal or cesarean delivery?
• Did you encounter any delivery complications?
• Did you see the baby after the delivery?
• Do you feel connected to or able to bond with the baby?
• Do you have access to maternity leave from work?
• Have you had scary or upsetting thoughts about hurting your baby?
• Do you have any concerns about your treatment plan, such as medication use?
• In case of an emergency, are you aware of perinatal psychiatry resources in your area or the national maternal mental health hotline (833-852-6262)?

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists clinical practice guidelines recommend that clinicians conduct depression and anxiety screening at least once during the perinatal period by using a standardized, validated tool.² Psychiatry residents should receive adequate guidance and education about perinatal psychiatric evaluation, risk assessment, and treatment counseling. Early detection of mental health symptoms allows for early referral, close surveillance during episodes of vulnerability, and better access to mental health care during the perinatal period.

The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) requires supervision of residents “provides safe and effective care to patients; ensures each resident’s development of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to enter the unsupervised practice of medicine; and establishes a foundation for continued professional growth.”¹ Beyond delineating supervision types (direct, indirect, or oversight), best practices for outpatient supervision are lacking, which perhaps contributes to challenges and discrepancies in experiences involving both trainees and supervisors.² In this article, I provide 6 practical recommendations for supervisors to address and overcome these challenges.

1. Don’t skip orientation

Resist the pressure to jump directly into clinical care. Devote the first supervision session to learner orientation about expectations (eg, documentation and between-visit patient outreach), logistics (eg, electronic health record or absences), clinic workflow and processes (eg, no-shows or referrals), and team members. Provide this verbally and in writing; the former fosters additional discussion and prompts questions, while the latter serves as a useful reference.

2. Plan for the end at the beginning

Plan ahead for end-of-rotation issues (eg, transfers of care or clinician sign-out), particularly because handoffs are known patient safety risks.³ Provide a written sign-out template or example, set a deadline for the first draft, and ensure known verbal sign-out occurs to both you and any trainees coming into the rotation.

3. Facilitate self-identification of strengths, weaknesses, and goals

Individual learning plans (ILPs) are a fundamental component of adult learning theory, allowing for self-directed learning and ongoing assessment by trainee and supervisor. Complete the ILP together at the beginning of the rotation and regularly devote time to revisit and revise it. This process ensures targeted feedback, which will reduce the stress and potential surprises often associated with end-of-rotation evaluations.

4. Consider the homework you assign

Be intentional about assigned readings. Consider their frequency and length, highlight where you want learners to focus, provide self-reflection questions/prompts, and take time to discuss during supervision. If you use a structured curriculum, maintain flexibility so your trainees’ interests, topics arising in real-time clinical care, and relevant in-press articles can be included.

5. Use direct observation

Whenever possible, directly observe clinical care, particularly a patient’s intake. To reduce trainee (and patient) anxiety and preserve independence, state, “I’m the attending physician supervising Dr. (NAME), who will be your doctor. We provide feedback to trainees right up to graduation so I’m here to observe and will be quiet in the background.” While direct observation is associated with early learners and inpatient settings, it is also preferred by senior outpatient psychiatry residents⁴ and associated with positive educational and patient outcomes.⁵

6. Offer supplemental experiences

If feasible, offer additional interdisciplinary supervision (eg, social workers, psychologists, or peer support), scholarly opportunities (eg, case report collaboration or clinic talk), psychotherapy cases, or meeting with patients on your case­load (eg, patients with a rare diagnosis or unique presentation). These align with ACGME’s broad supervision requirements and offer much-appreciated individualized learning tailored to the trainee.

The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) requires supervision of residents “provides safe and effective care to patients; ensures each resident’s development of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to enter the unsupervised practice of medicine; and establishes a foundation for continued professional growth.”¹ Beyond delineating supervision types (direct, indirect, or oversight), best practices for outpatient supervision are lacking, which perhaps contributes to challenges and discrepancies in experiences involving both trainees and supervisors.² In this article, I provide 6 practical recommendations for supervisors to address and overcome these challenges.

1. Don’t skip orientation

Resist the pressure to jump directly into clinical care. Devote the first supervision session to learner orientation about expectations (eg, documentation and between-visit patient outreach), logistics (eg, electronic health record or absences), clinic workflow and processes (eg, no-shows or referrals), and team members. Provide this verbally and in writing; the former fosters additional discussion and prompts questions, while the latter serves as a useful reference.

2. Plan for the end at the beginning

Plan ahead for end-of-rotation issues (eg, transfers of care or clinician sign-out), particularly because handoffs are known patient safety risks.³ Provide a written sign-out template or example, set a deadline for the first draft, and ensure known verbal sign-out occurs to both you and any trainees coming into the rotation.

3. Facilitate self-identification of strengths, weaknesses, and goals

Individual learning plans (ILPs) are a fundamental component of adult learning theory, allowing for self-directed learning and ongoing assessment by trainee and supervisor. Complete the ILP together at the beginning of the rotation and regularly devote time to revisit and revise it. This process ensures targeted feedback, which will reduce the stress and potential surprises often associated with end-of-rotation evaluations.

4. Consider the homework you assign

Be intentional about assigned readings. Consider their frequency and length, highlight where you want learners to focus, provide self-reflection questions/prompts, and take time to discuss during supervision. If you use a structured curriculum, maintain flexibility so your trainees’ interests, topics arising in real-time clinical care, and relevant in-press articles can be included.

5. Use direct observation

Whenever possible, directly observe clinical care, particularly a patient’s intake. To reduce trainee (and patient) anxiety and preserve independence, state, “I’m the attending physician supervising Dr. (NAME), who will be your doctor. We provide feedback to trainees right up to graduation so I’m here to observe and will be quiet in the background.” While direct observation is associated with early learners and inpatient settings, it is also preferred by senior outpatient psychiatry residents⁴ and associated with positive educational and patient outcomes.⁵

6. Offer supplemental experiences

If feasible, offer additional interdisciplinary supervision (eg, social workers, psychologists, or peer support), scholarly opportunities (eg, case report collaboration or clinic talk), psychotherapy cases, or meeting with patients on your case­load (eg, patients with a rare diagnosis or unique presentation). These align with ACGME’s broad supervision requirements and offer much-appreciated individualized learning tailored to the trainee.

The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) requires supervision of residents “provides safe and effective care to patients; ensures each resident’s development of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to enter the unsupervised practice of medicine; and establishes a foundation for continued professional growth.”¹ Beyond delineating supervision types (direct, indirect, or oversight), best practices for outpatient supervision are lacking, which perhaps contributes to challenges and discrepancies in experiences involving both trainees and supervisors.² In this article, I provide 6 practical recommendations for supervisors to address and overcome these challenges.

1. Don’t skip orientation

Resist the pressure to jump directly into clinical care. Devote the first supervision session to learner orientation about expectations (eg, documentation and between-visit patient outreach), logistics (eg, electronic health record or absences), clinic workflow and processes (eg, no-shows or referrals), and team members. Provide this verbally and in writing; the former fosters additional discussion and prompts questions, while the latter serves as a useful reference.

2. Plan for the end at the beginning

Plan ahead for end-of-rotation issues (eg, transfers of care or clinician sign-out), particularly because handoffs are known patient safety risks.³ Provide a written sign-out template or example, set a deadline for the first draft, and ensure known verbal sign-out occurs to both you and any trainees coming into the rotation.

3. Facilitate self-identification of strengths, weaknesses, and goals

Individual learning plans (ILPs) are a fundamental component of adult learning theory, allowing for self-directed learning and ongoing assessment by trainee and supervisor. Complete the ILP together at the beginning of the rotation and regularly devote time to revisit and revise it. This process ensures targeted feedback, which will reduce the stress and potential surprises often associated with end-of-rotation evaluations.

4. Consider the homework you assign

Be intentional about assigned readings. Consider their frequency and length, highlight where you want learners to focus, provide self-reflection questions/prompts, and take time to discuss during supervision. If you use a structured curriculum, maintain flexibility so your trainees’ interests, topics arising in real-time clinical care, and relevant in-press articles can be included.

5. Use direct observation

Whenever possible, directly observe clinical care, particularly a patient’s intake. To reduce trainee (and patient) anxiety and preserve independence, state, “I’m the attending physician supervising Dr. (NAME), who will be your doctor. We provide feedback to trainees right up to graduation so I’m here to observe and will be quiet in the background.” While direct observation is associated with early learners and inpatient settings, it is also preferred by senior outpatient psychiatry residents⁴ and associated with positive educational and patient outcomes.⁵

6. Offer supplemental experiences

If feasible, offer additional interdisciplinary supervision (eg, social workers, psychologists, or peer support), scholarly opportunities (eg, case report collaboration or clinic talk), psychotherapy cases, or meeting with patients on your case­load (eg, patients with a rare diagnosis or unique presentation). These align with ACGME’s broad supervision requirements and offer much-appreciated individualized learning tailored to the trainee.

Clinicians of all experience levels, particularly trainees, may struggle when interviewing an individual experiencing psychosis. Many clinicians feel unsure what to say when a patient expresses fixed beliefs that are not amenable to change despite conflicting evidence, or worry about inadvertently affirming these beliefs. Supporting and empathizing with a person experiencing psychosis while avoiding reinforcing delusional beliefs is an important skillset for clinicians to have. While there is no single “correct” approach to interviewing individuals with psychosis, key principles include:

1. Do not begin by challenging delusions

People experiencing delusions often feel strongly about the validity of their beliefs and find evidence to support them. Directly challenging these beliefs from the beginning may alienate them. Instead, explore with neutral questioning: “Can you tell me more about X?” “What did you notice that made you believe Y?” Later, when rapport is established, it may be appropriate to explore discrepancies that provide insight into their delusions, a technique used in cognitive-behavioral therapy for psychosis.

2. Validate the emotion, not the psychosis

Many interviewers worry that talking about a patient’s delusions or voices will inadvertently reinforce them. Instead of agreeing with the content, listen for and empathize with the emotion (which is often fear): “That sounds frightening.” If the emotion is unclear, ask: “How did you feel when that happened?” When unsure what to say, sometimes a neutral “mmm” conveys listening without reinforcing the psychosis.

3. Explicitly state emotions and intentions

People with psychosis may have difficulty processing others’ emotions and facial expressions.¹ We recommend using verbal cues to assist them in recognizing emotions and intentions: “It makes me sad to hear how alone you felt,” or “I’m here to help you.” The interviewer may mildly “amplify” their facial expressions so that the person experiencing psychosis can more clearly identify the expressed emotion, though not all individuals with psychosis respond well to this.

4. Reflect the patient’s own words

We recommend using the patient’s exact (typically nonclinical) words in referring to their experiences to build rapport and a shared understanding of their subjective experience.² Avoid introducing clinical jargon, such as “delusion” or “hallucination.” For example, the interviewer might follow a patient’s explanation of their experiences by asking: “You heard voices in the walls—what did they say?” If the patient uses clinical jargon, the interviewer should clarify their meaning: “When you say ‘paranoid,’ what does that mean to you?”

5. Be intentional with gestures and positioning

People with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders may have difficulty interpreting gestures and are more likely to perceive gestures as self-referential.¹ We recommend minimizing gestures or using simple, neutral-to-positive movements appropriate to cultural context. For example, in the United States, hands with palms up in front of the body generally convey openness, whereas arms crossed over the chest may convey anger. We recommend that to avoid appearing confrontational, interviewers do not position themselves directly in front of the patient, instead positioning themselves at an angle. Consider mirroring patients’ gestures or postures to convey empathy and build rapport.³

Clinicians of all experience levels, particularly trainees, may struggle when interviewing an individual experiencing psychosis. Many clinicians feel unsure what to say when a patient expresses fixed beliefs that are not amenable to change despite conflicting evidence, or worry about inadvertently affirming these beliefs. Supporting and empathizing with a person experiencing psychosis while avoiding reinforcing delusional beliefs is an important skillset for clinicians to have. While there is no single “correct” approach to interviewing individuals with psychosis, key principles include:

1. Do not begin by challenging delusions

People experiencing delusions often feel strongly about the validity of their beliefs and find evidence to support them. Directly challenging these beliefs from the beginning may alienate them. Instead, explore with neutral questioning: “Can you tell me more about X?” “What did you notice that made you believe Y?” Later, when rapport is established, it may be appropriate to explore discrepancies that provide insight into their delusions, a technique used in cognitive-behavioral therapy for psychosis.

2. Validate the emotion, not the psychosis

Many interviewers worry that talking about a patient’s delusions or voices will inadvertently reinforce them. Instead of agreeing with the content, listen for and empathize with the emotion (which is often fear): “That sounds frightening.” If the emotion is unclear, ask: “How did you feel when that happened?” When unsure what to say, sometimes a neutral “mmm” conveys listening without reinforcing the psychosis.

3. Explicitly state emotions and intentions

People with psychosis may have difficulty processing others’ emotions and facial expressions.¹ We recommend using verbal cues to assist them in recognizing emotions and intentions: “It makes me sad to hear how alone you felt,” or “I’m here to help you.” The interviewer may mildly “amplify” their facial expressions so that the person experiencing psychosis can more clearly identify the expressed emotion, though not all individuals with psychosis respond well to this.

4. Reflect the patient’s own words

We recommend using the patient’s exact (typically nonclinical) words in referring to their experiences to build rapport and a shared understanding of their subjective experience.² Avoid introducing clinical jargon, such as “delusion” or “hallucination.” For example, the interviewer might follow a patient’s explanation of their experiences by asking: “You heard voices in the walls—what did they say?” If the patient uses clinical jargon, the interviewer should clarify their meaning: “When you say ‘paranoid,’ what does that mean to you?”

5. Be intentional with gestures and positioning

People with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders may have difficulty interpreting gestures and are more likely to perceive gestures as self-referential.¹ We recommend minimizing gestures or using simple, neutral-to-positive movements appropriate to cultural context. For example, in the United States, hands with palms up in front of the body generally convey openness, whereas arms crossed over the chest may convey anger. We recommend that to avoid appearing confrontational, interviewers do not position themselves directly in front of the patient, instead positioning themselves at an angle. Consider mirroring patients’ gestures or postures to convey empathy and build rapport.³

Clinicians of all experience levels, particularly trainees, may struggle when interviewing an individual experiencing psychosis. Many clinicians feel unsure what to say when a patient expresses fixed beliefs that are not amenable to change despite conflicting evidence, or worry about inadvertently affirming these beliefs. Supporting and empathizing with a person experiencing psychosis while avoiding reinforcing delusional beliefs is an important skillset for clinicians to have. While there is no single “correct” approach to interviewing individuals with psychosis, key principles include:

1. Do not begin by challenging delusions

People experiencing delusions often feel strongly about the validity of their beliefs and find evidence to support them. Directly challenging these beliefs from the beginning may alienate them. Instead, explore with neutral questioning: “Can you tell me more about X?” “What did you notice that made you believe Y?” Later, when rapport is established, it may be appropriate to explore discrepancies that provide insight into their delusions, a technique used in cognitive-behavioral therapy for psychosis.

2. Validate the emotion, not the psychosis

Many interviewers worry that talking about a patient’s delusions or voices will inadvertently reinforce them. Instead of agreeing with the content, listen for and empathize with the emotion (which is often fear): “That sounds frightening.” If the emotion is unclear, ask: “How did you feel when that happened?” When unsure what to say, sometimes a neutral “mmm” conveys listening without reinforcing the psychosis.

3. Explicitly state emotions and intentions

People with psychosis may have difficulty processing others’ emotions and facial expressions.¹ We recommend using verbal cues to assist them in recognizing emotions and intentions: “It makes me sad to hear how alone you felt,” or “I’m here to help you.” The interviewer may mildly “amplify” their facial expressions so that the person experiencing psychosis can more clearly identify the expressed emotion, though not all individuals with psychosis respond well to this.

4. Reflect the patient’s own words

We recommend using the patient’s exact (typically nonclinical) words in referring to their experiences to build rapport and a shared understanding of their subjective experience.² Avoid introducing clinical jargon, such as “delusion” or “hallucination.” For example, the interviewer might follow a patient’s explanation of their experiences by asking: “You heard voices in the walls—what did they say?” If the patient uses clinical jargon, the interviewer should clarify their meaning: “When you say ‘paranoid,’ what does that mean to you?”

5. Be intentional with gestures and positioning

People with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders may have difficulty interpreting gestures and are more likely to perceive gestures as self-referential.¹ We recommend minimizing gestures or using simple, neutral-to-positive movements appropriate to cultural context. For example, in the United States, hands with palms up in front of the body generally convey openness, whereas arms crossed over the chest may convey anger. We recommend that to avoid appearing confrontational, interviewers do not position themselves directly in front of the patient, instead positioning themselves at an angle. Consider mirroring patients’ gestures or postures to convey empathy and build rapport.³

When used to treat anxiety or depressive disorders, antidepressants can cause a variety of adverse effects, including emotional blunting. Emotional blunting has been described as emotional numbness, indifference, decreased responsiveness, or numbing. In a study of 669 patients who had been receiving antidepressants (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SSRIs], serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors [SNRIs], or other antidepressants), 46% said they had experienced emotional blunting.¹ A 2019 study found that approximately one-third of patients with unipolar depression or bipolar depression stopped taking their antidepressant due to emotional blunting.²

Historically, there has been difficulty parsing out emotional blunting (a general decrease of all range of emotions) from anhedonia (a restriction of positive emotions). Additionally, some researchers have questioned if the blunting of emotions is part of depressive symptomatology. In a study of 38 adults, most felt able to differentiate emotional blunting due to antidepressants by considering the resolution of other depressive symptoms and timeline of onset.³

A significant limitation has been how clinicians measure or assess emotional blunting. The Oxford Depression Questionnaire (ODQ), previously known as the Oxford Questionnaire on the Emotional Side-effects of Antidepressants, was created based on a qualitative survey of patients who endorsed emotional blunting.⁴ A validated scale, the ODQ divides emotional blunting into 4 dimensions:

• general reduction in emotions
• reduction in positive emotions
• emotional detachment from others
• not caring.⁴

The sections of ODQ focus on exploring specific aspects of patients’ emotional experiences, comparing experiences in the past week to before the development of illness/emotional blunting, and patients’ opinions about antidepressants. Example statements from the ODQ (Table⁴) may help clinicians better understand and explore emotional blunting with their patients.

There are 2 leading theories behind the mechanism of emotional blunting on antidepressants, both focused on serotonin. The first theory offers that SSRIs alter frontal lobe activity through serotonergic effects. The second theory is focused on the downward effects of serotonin on dopamine in reward pathways.⁵ 

Treatment options: Limited evidence

Data on how to address antidepressant-induced emotional blunting are limited and based largely on case reports. One open-label study (N = 143) found that patients experiencing emotional blunting while taking SSRIs and SNRIs who were switched to vortioxetine had a statistically significant decrease in ODQ total score; 50% reported no emotional blunting.⁶ Options to address emotional blunting include decreasing the antidepressant dose, augmenting with or switching to another agent, or considering other treatments such as neuromodulation.⁵ Further research is necessary to clarify which intervention is best.

Clinicians will encounter emotional blunting in patients who are taking antidepressants. It is important to recognize and address these symptoms to help improve patients’ adherence and overall quality of life. 

When used to treat anxiety or depressive disorders, antidepressants can cause a variety of adverse effects, including emotional blunting. Emotional blunting has been described as emotional numbness, indifference, decreased responsiveness, or numbing. In a study of 669 patients who had been receiving antidepressants (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SSRIs], serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors [SNRIs], or other antidepressants), 46% said they had experienced emotional blunting.¹ A 2019 study found that approximately one-third of patients with unipolar depression or bipolar depression stopped taking their antidepressant due to emotional blunting.²

Historically, there has been difficulty parsing out emotional blunting (a general decrease of all range of emotions) from anhedonia (a restriction of positive emotions). Additionally, some researchers have questioned if the blunting of emotions is part of depressive symptomatology. In a study of 38 adults, most felt able to differentiate emotional blunting due to antidepressants by considering the resolution of other depressive symptoms and timeline of onset.³

A significant limitation has been how clinicians measure or assess emotional blunting. The Oxford Depression Questionnaire (ODQ), previously known as the Oxford Questionnaire on the Emotional Side-effects of Antidepressants, was created based on a qualitative survey of patients who endorsed emotional blunting.⁴ A validated scale, the ODQ divides emotional blunting into 4 dimensions:

• general reduction in emotions
• reduction in positive emotions
• emotional detachment from others
• not caring.⁴

The sections of ODQ focus on exploring specific aspects of patients’ emotional experiences, comparing experiences in the past week to before the development of illness/emotional blunting, and patients’ opinions about antidepressants. Example statements from the ODQ (Table⁴) may help clinicians better understand and explore emotional blunting with their patients.

There are 2 leading theories behind the mechanism of emotional blunting on antidepressants, both focused on serotonin. The first theory offers that SSRIs alter frontal lobe activity through serotonergic effects. The second theory is focused on the downward effects of serotonin on dopamine in reward pathways.⁵ 

Treatment options: Limited evidence

Data on how to address antidepressant-induced emotional blunting are limited and based largely on case reports. One open-label study (N = 143) found that patients experiencing emotional blunting while taking SSRIs and SNRIs who were switched to vortioxetine had a statistically significant decrease in ODQ total score; 50% reported no emotional blunting.⁶ Options to address emotional blunting include decreasing the antidepressant dose, augmenting with or switching to another agent, or considering other treatments such as neuromodulation.⁵ Further research is necessary to clarify which intervention is best.

Clinicians will encounter emotional blunting in patients who are taking antidepressants. It is important to recognize and address these symptoms to help improve patients’ adherence and overall quality of life. 

When used to treat anxiety or depressive disorders, antidepressants can cause a variety of adverse effects, including emotional blunting. Emotional blunting has been described as emotional numbness, indifference, decreased responsiveness, or numbing. In a study of 669 patients who had been receiving antidepressants (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SSRIs], serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors [SNRIs], or other antidepressants), 46% said they had experienced emotional blunting.¹ A 2019 study found that approximately one-third of patients with unipolar depression or bipolar depression stopped taking their antidepressant due to emotional blunting.²

Historically, there has been difficulty parsing out emotional blunting (a general decrease of all range of emotions) from anhedonia (a restriction of positive emotions). Additionally, some researchers have questioned if the blunting of emotions is part of depressive symptomatology. In a study of 38 adults, most felt able to differentiate emotional blunting due to antidepressants by considering the resolution of other depressive symptoms and timeline of onset.³

A significant limitation has been how clinicians measure or assess emotional blunting. The Oxford Depression Questionnaire (ODQ), previously known as the Oxford Questionnaire on the Emotional Side-effects of Antidepressants, was created based on a qualitative survey of patients who endorsed emotional blunting.⁴ A validated scale, the ODQ divides emotional blunting into 4 dimensions:

• general reduction in emotions
• reduction in positive emotions
• emotional detachment from others
• not caring.⁴

The sections of ODQ focus on exploring specific aspects of patients’ emotional experiences, comparing experiences in the past week to before the development of illness/emotional blunting, and patients’ opinions about antidepressants. Example statements from the ODQ (Table⁴) may help clinicians better understand and explore emotional blunting with their patients.

There are 2 leading theories behind the mechanism of emotional blunting on antidepressants, both focused on serotonin. The first theory offers that SSRIs alter frontal lobe activity through serotonergic effects. The second theory is focused on the downward effects of serotonin on dopamine in reward pathways.⁵ 

Treatment options: Limited evidence

Data on how to address antidepressant-induced emotional blunting are limited and based largely on case reports. One open-label study (N = 143) found that patients experiencing emotional blunting while taking SSRIs and SNRIs who were switched to vortioxetine had a statistically significant decrease in ODQ total score; 50% reported no emotional blunting.⁶ Options to address emotional blunting include decreasing the antidepressant dose, augmenting with or switching to another agent, or considering other treatments such as neuromodulation.⁵ Further research is necessary to clarify which intervention is best.

Clinicians will encounter emotional blunting in patients who are taking antidepressants. It is important to recognize and address these symptoms to help improve patients’ adherence and overall quality of life. 

Psychiatric clinicians may unilaterally decide to end a treatment relationship with a patient when the relationship is no longer therapeutic, such as when the patient does not adhere to treatment, repeatedly misses appointments, exhibits abusive behaviors, or fails to pay for treatment.¹ Claims of abandonment can arise if ending the treatment relationship is not executed properly. Abandonment is the termination of a treatment relationship with a patient who remains in need of treatment, has no suitable substitute treatment, and subsequently experiences damages as a result of the termination.² When a patient terminates a treatment relationship, there are no legal bases for abandonment claims.³ In this article, I provide a few practical tips for properly terminating the doctor-patient relationship to limit the likelihood of claims of abandonment.

Know your jurisdiction’s requirements for terminating the relationship. Each state has its own legal definition of a doctor-patient relationship as well as requirements for ending it. Abandonment claims are unfounded in the absence of a doctor-patient relationship.³ Contact the appropriate licensing board to determine what your state’s regulatory requirements are. If necessary, consult with your attorney or a risk management professional for guidance.⁴

Communicate clearly. Communicate with your patient about the end of the treatment relationship in a clear and consistent manner, both verbally and in writing, because a termination should be viewed as a formal, documented event.³ Except in situations requiring immediate termination, psychiatric clinicians should inform the patient about the reason(s) for termination,⁴ the need for continued treatment,³ and the type of recommended treatment.³ This discussion should be summarized in a termination letter given to the patient that includes termination language, referral sources, the end date of treatment, and a request for authorization to release a copy of the patient’s medical records to their new clinician.^3,4

Give adequate time, set boundaries, and document. Thirty days is generally considered adequate time for a patient to find a new clinician,⁵ unless the patient lives in an area where there is a shortage of psychiatric clinicians, in which case a longer time period would be appropriate.³ Ensure your patient has a sufficient supply of medication(s) until they establish care with a new clinician.⁴ Offer to provide emergency care for a reasonable period of time during the termination process unless a safety concern requires immediate termination.⁴ Avoid situations in which the patient attempts to re-enter your care. Document the reason for the termination in your progress notes and keep a copy of the termination letter in the patient’s medical record.⁴

Psychiatric clinicians may unilaterally decide to end a treatment relationship with a patient when the relationship is no longer therapeutic, such as when the patient does not adhere to treatment, repeatedly misses appointments, exhibits abusive behaviors, or fails to pay for treatment.¹ Claims of abandonment can arise if ending the treatment relationship is not executed properly. Abandonment is the termination of a treatment relationship with a patient who remains in need of treatment, has no suitable substitute treatment, and subsequently experiences damages as a result of the termination.² When a patient terminates a treatment relationship, there are no legal bases for abandonment claims.³ In this article, I provide a few practical tips for properly terminating the doctor-patient relationship to limit the likelihood of claims of abandonment.

Know your jurisdiction’s requirements for terminating the relationship. Each state has its own legal definition of a doctor-patient relationship as well as requirements for ending it. Abandonment claims are unfounded in the absence of a doctor-patient relationship.³ Contact the appropriate licensing board to determine what your state’s regulatory requirements are. If necessary, consult with your attorney or a risk management professional for guidance.⁴

Communicate clearly. Communicate with your patient about the end of the treatment relationship in a clear and consistent manner, both verbally and in writing, because a termination should be viewed as a formal, documented event.³ Except in situations requiring immediate termination, psychiatric clinicians should inform the patient about the reason(s) for termination,⁴ the need for continued treatment,³ and the type of recommended treatment.³ This discussion should be summarized in a termination letter given to the patient that includes termination language, referral sources, the end date of treatment, and a request for authorization to release a copy of the patient’s medical records to their new clinician.^3,4

Give adequate time, set boundaries, and document. Thirty days is generally considered adequate time for a patient to find a new clinician,⁵ unless the patient lives in an area where there is a shortage of psychiatric clinicians, in which case a longer time period would be appropriate.³ Ensure your patient has a sufficient supply of medication(s) until they establish care with a new clinician.⁴ Offer to provide emergency care for a reasonable period of time during the termination process unless a safety concern requires immediate termination.⁴ Avoid situations in which the patient attempts to re-enter your care. Document the reason for the termination in your progress notes and keep a copy of the termination letter in the patient’s medical record.⁴

Psychiatric clinicians may unilaterally decide to end a treatment relationship with a patient when the relationship is no longer therapeutic, such as when the patient does not adhere to treatment, repeatedly misses appointments, exhibits abusive behaviors, or fails to pay for treatment.¹ Claims of abandonment can arise if ending the treatment relationship is not executed properly. Abandonment is the termination of a treatment relationship with a patient who remains in need of treatment, has no suitable substitute treatment, and subsequently experiences damages as a result of the termination.² When a patient terminates a treatment relationship, there are no legal bases for abandonment claims.³ In this article, I provide a few practical tips for properly terminating the doctor-patient relationship to limit the likelihood of claims of abandonment.

Know your jurisdiction’s requirements for terminating the relationship. Each state has its own legal definition of a doctor-patient relationship as well as requirements for ending it. Abandonment claims are unfounded in the absence of a doctor-patient relationship.³ Contact the appropriate licensing board to determine what your state’s regulatory requirements are. If necessary, consult with your attorney or a risk management professional for guidance.⁴

Communicate clearly. Communicate with your patient about the end of the treatment relationship in a clear and consistent manner, both verbally and in writing, because a termination should be viewed as a formal, documented event.³ Except in situations requiring immediate termination, psychiatric clinicians should inform the patient about the reason(s) for termination,⁴ the need for continued treatment,³ and the type of recommended treatment.³ This discussion should be summarized in a termination letter given to the patient that includes termination language, referral sources, the end date of treatment, and a request for authorization to release a copy of the patient’s medical records to their new clinician.^3,4

Give adequate time, set boundaries, and document. Thirty days is generally considered adequate time for a patient to find a new clinician,⁵ unless the patient lives in an area where there is a shortage of psychiatric clinicians, in which case a longer time period would be appropriate.³ Ensure your patient has a sufficient supply of medication(s) until they establish care with a new clinician.⁴ Offer to provide emergency care for a reasonable period of time during the termination process unless a safety concern requires immediate termination.⁴ Avoid situations in which the patient attempts to re-enter your care. Document the reason for the termination in your progress notes and keep a copy of the termination letter in the patient’s medical record.⁴